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JJT469
M26E4

H I S T 0

M A D A G A

SCAR.

COMPRISING ALSO

THE PROGRESS OF THE CHRISTIAN MISSION ESTABLISHED IN 1818; AND AN
AUTHENTIC ACCOUNT OF THE PERSECUTION AND RECENT
MARTYRDOM OF THE NATIVE CHRISTIANS.

OTomptlcli ctiteflg from ©tt'gmal documents,

BY THE REV. WILLIAM ELLIS.

Foreign Secretary to the London Missionary Society.

" TELL THE QUEEN OF MADAGASCAR FROM ME, THAT SHE CAN DO NOTHING SO BENE-
FICIAL FOR HER COUNTRY AS TO RECEIVE THE CHRISTIAN RELIGION."

Queen Adelaide to the Embassy from Madagascar.

IN TWO VOLUMES.

VOL. h

FISHER, SON, & CO.
' NEWGATE- STREET, LONDON; QUAI DE L'ECOLE, PARIS.

PREFACE.

The materials for a large portion of the following-
work, were collected by the Missionaries in the island
to which it relates, and forwarded to this country
in the year 1830. It was then intended to pre-
sent chiefly a history of the Protestant Mission in
Madagascar, from its commencement in 1818, to
the decease of Radama in 1828. This, it was pro-
posed, to accompany by a description of the most
remarkable customs of the Malagasy, biographical
notices of the late king, and other distinguished per-
sonages ; and an account of the abolition of the slave-
trade in the island. When the documents were exa-
mined by the Directors of the London Missionary
Society, to whom they were sent, it appeared desir-
able to extend the plan of the work, by including
the history of the island from its discovery, to a later
date than 1828 ; and early in 1833, I was requested

PREFACE.

to prepare the work for publication, adding such
information as could be obtained from publications in
this country — correspondence with the Missionaries —
and the papers in the possession of the London Mis-
sionary Society.

Shortly after the period now referred to, circum-
stances occurring in Madagascar which rendered it
expedient to postpone for a time the publication of
the history, its preparation for the press was sus-
pended ; and although a very strong desire for infor-
mation respecting the country and the people has
been manifested, the delay that has taken place is
the less to be regretted, as the work has been ren-
dered more complete than it could have been, if pub-
lished at any earlier period.

By the kindness of the Right Honourable Lord
Glenelg, Her Majesty's Principal Secretary of State
for the Colonies, access has been obligingly granted to
the voluminous and peculiarly interesting MS. jour-
nals of James Hastie, Esq., by whom the treaty for
the abolition of the slave-trade was negociated, and
who was, for many years, British agent at the capital
of Madagascar.

In the early part of the work, the writings of
Flacourt, Rochon, the narrative of Drury, and the
life of Benyowsky, the History by Copland, as well
as other works, have been used. Much valuable

PREFACE.

information has also been obtained from the island,
in answer to specific inquiries sent to the Mis-
sionaries. Several of these, namely, Messrs. Jones,
Griffiths, and Baker, have also visited England since
the preparation of the work was commenced, and
have readily furnished information, which has enabled
me to enlarge and modify many of the original state-
ments. Mr. Freeman has also cheerfully supplied
much useful information respecting the recent his-
tory of the country, and has prepared a valuable
paper on the native language, which is given as an
Appendix to the first volume. The embellishments
are chiefly from sketches taken on the spot, or from
articles brought to this country ; the outline of the map
is copied from that published after the recent survey
by Commodore Owen ; and the names of places and
persons are given by the Missionaries, or taken from
other authorities.

To the distinguished nobleman to whom I am
indebted for access to the documents in the Colonial
Office, to Captain Moorsom, R.N., to the Author of
" The Loss of the Winterton," and the Missionary
Brethren who have rendered me valuable assist-
ance in the preparation of the work, I would thus
publicly acknowledge my obligations, especially to
the Rev. J. J. Freeman, who, in order to aid in
securing the greatest possible accuracy, has kindly

PREFACE.

inspected the following pages as they have passed
through the press.

The history of Madagascar is, in many respects,
highly instructive. It exhibits a branch of that sin-
gular and widely-scattered race inhabiting chiefly the
coasts and islands of South-eastern Asia ; preserv-
ing in their language, and many of their customs,
unequivocal signs of identity, yet dwelling at a dis-
tance from the Malayan archipelago, or the groups
of Polynesia, greater than, without the strongest evi-
dence, we should have believed it possible for them to
reach. It shows an interesting portion of the human
family, gradually emerging from the ignorance and
rudeness which characterise the earliest stages of
society, exhibiting the intelligence and energy, and
acquiring the comforts, of a civilized state. It further
shows a people, with scarcely a single exception,
friendly and hospitable to their visiters, until goaded
to outrage and violence by ill-treatment, or rendered
more corrupt than they were before, by the vicious
influence and example of their visiters.

The work will also encourage the philanthropist in
his career of undaunted and persevering benevolence,
by exhibiting the success with which the iniquitous
traffic in human beings had been prohibited, in what
was once one of the most frequented slave-markets in
the world.

PREFACE.

vii

Beyond these, and other points of deep and lasting
interest, these volumes supply a faithful record of the
means employed for introducing among five millions
of our species, a written language, a knowledge of
the use of letters, of some of the useful arts of civi-
lized life, and an acquaintance with the sacred truths
of Divine Revelation. The measure of visible success,
which for a time attended these efforts, and the
melancholy reverses they have recently experienced,
with the fierce and destructive persecution which has
lately burst forth, and raged with such fearful
violence in Madagascar, have excited deep and gene-
ral interest throughout our country. An account of
this persecution — which continues to rage against the
native Christians, from whose numbers, there is rea-
son to fear, additions are still made to the noble
army of martyrs who have sealed their testimony
with their blood — will be found in these volumes,
recorded with greater explicitness than in the state-
ments hitherto made public.

I have availed myself, as far as practicable, of
every means within my reach for rendering the work
acceptable and useful to all interested in the history
and prospects of Madagascar ; with very few excep-
tions, the whole has been re-written, and arranged in
the order in which it now appears, and will, it is
hoped, not only be found a faithful record of the

viii

PREFACE.

events it narrates, and the scenes it describes, but
excite deep interest, and stimulate to fervent prayer
on behalf of the church in the midst of flames, and
the nation in the present crisis of its history; and
excite more ardent desires, that in Madagascar, and
every other portion of the heathen world, the Gospel
may have free course, and be glorified, until the earth
shall be full of the knowledge of the Lord, as the
waters cover the sea.

WILLIAM ELLIS.

Pentonville, October 10th, 1838.

CONTENTS OF VOL. I.

CHAP. I.

Geographical situation of Madagascar — Period of discovery — Extent —
Earliest visitors — Names by which the island is designated by the
natives — Import of native names — Description of the island by early
visitors — Geological features of Madagascar — Minerals : copper, silver,
iron, rock-salt, nitre, plumbago — General appearance of the country —
Elevation of the principal mountains — Account of the appearance, struc-
ture, and peculiarities of the Ankaratra range of mountains — Number,
situation, appearance, and extent of the lakes, rivers, springs, mineral
waters — Description of the saline springs at Mandrovy, and the adjacent
scenery in the Betsileo country 1

CHAP. II.

Climate of Madagascar — Fluctuations in the temperature of the atmosphere —
Insalubrity of the greater part of the sea-coast — Healthiness of the interior
— The Malagasy year — Periodical rains — Number and names of the
months — The seasons of the Malagasy year ; import of their designations
— Thunder and lightning — Water-spouts — Whirlwinds — Meteors —
Variety and fertility of the soil — Productions — Forests — Trees and
plants, indigenous and exotic — Honey and gums — Birds, native and
foreign — Fable of the birds choosing a king — Wild and tame quadrupeds
— Fishes : efforts to obtain a supply for the capital — Amphibious animals
— Account of the crocodiles ; peculiar habits of the animal — Sagacity of
the dog — Fable of the serpent, the crocodile, and the dog — Superstition
of the natives respecting the crocodile — Insects and reptiles 27

CHAP. III.

Provinces of Madagascar : their number, designations, import of the names
of the twenty-two provinces of the island ; their boundaries, extent, and
peculiarities — Early French settlements in Madagascar — Isle of St. Mary's
— Character and history of its former inhabitants — The suppression of
piracy carried on from the island — Foule Point — Port and town of Tama-
tave — The importance of the commerce of the island — The country of
the Betanimena — Culture of the mulberry ; introduction of silkworms —
Brigands : nature of their retreats in the forests and caverns of the
interior — Peculiar insalubrity of the southern coast — Fertility and scenery
of the celebrated vale of Ambolo — Fort Dauphin — Country in the neigh-
bourhood of St. Angustine bay — Extent and peculiarities of the chief
subdivisions — The Betsileo country — Provinces of the Sakalavas — The
lake Imania — Barbarity of the inhabitants of Ambongo — The lake Anosy
— Natural beauty of the province of Ankay ; superstition of its inhabit-
ants— The river Mangoro 61

CONTENTS.

CHAP. IV.

Province of Ankova — Meaning of the name — The chief divisions of the
province Imerina — Its general aspect — Elevation of its mountains — Relics
of antiquity — Objects of superstitious veneration — Salubrity of Ankova
— Produce of the country — Subdivisions or clans, Voro-mahery, Imamo>
Vonizongo — Tomb of Rapeto — Peculiarities of the inhabitants of Ankova
— Account of Tananarivo, the capital of the island— Its geographical
situation— Its elevation above the level of the sea — Import of the name —
Population of Tananarivo — Dwellings of the people — Construction of
their houses — Divisions in the capital — Public thoroughfares — The palace
— The silver house — The throne of the kingdom — Site of the tombs of
the reigning family — Antsahatsiroa, place of public assembly — The
Tarpeian rock of Tananarivo — The several places of execution — Market
— Central school and chapel — Mission buildings — Burial-ground for
strangers — Country residences of the king — State of the public roads —
Remains of ancient fortifications 82

CHAP. V.

Population of Madagascar — Its probable amount — The chief political divi-
sions of the people, and the estimated number of each division — Dispro-
portion of population to the extent and resources of the country— General
description of the Malagasy — Description of the several races in the
island — Their respective provinces — The Hovas ; import of the term ;
their figure, colour, number, &c. — The Vazimba, or probable aborigines
of Madagascar — The Kimois, or nation of dwarfs — The Sakalavas ; their
character, colour, habits, &c. — The Bezanozano and the Antsianaka — The
north and south Betsileo — The Betsimisaraka and Betanimena ; their
stature, complexion, &c. — The inhabitants of the Isle of St. Mary's —
The Zafindramina, or descendants of the mother of Mahomet — Probable
origin of the distinct races in the island — Intellectual character of the
people — Moral qualities of the Malagasy— Their general disregard of
truth, &c- — Baneful influence of superstition 113

CHAP. VI.

Manners and customs of the Malagasy — Their general uniformity through-
out the different tribes — Observances connected with the birth of children
— Attentions shewn to the mother — Ceremonies observed on first taking
the infant out of the house — Employment of the sikidy to ascertain its
destiny — Proportion of the sexes — Practice of scrambling — Bestowment
of names — Fearful prevalence of infanticide — Motives to its perpetration
— Means by which it is effected — Circumstances in which it differs from
the infant-murder formerly practised by the South Sea Islanders — Fond-
ness of parents for the children that are spared — Amusements of child-
hood— Occupations of youth — The custom of betrothing — Ages at which
marriages are celebrated — Ceremonies observed — Parties between whom
marriage is prohibited — Polygamy; its extent and disastrous effects —
Divorce ; its frequency — Usual mode of proceeding in divorce — Disposal
of the children — Degraded condition of the female sex 145

CONTENTS.

CHAP. VII.

The rite of circumcision — Appointment of the time for its observance —
Consecration of the vessel for the holy water — Procession for bringing
the holy water and other requisites for the ceremony — Bull-baiting and
other amusements at the festival — Platting of baskets — Slaughter of a
sheep— Measuring the children — Planting the banana stem — Benedictions
pronounced on the children — Public addresses delivered to them — The
faditra, or offering to bear away evil — The strong water — Slaughter of
the red bullock — The father's address to the son while the rite is per-
forming— Conduct of the mothers on the occasion — Feasting at the close
of the ceremonies — The custom of forming brotherhoods by drinking of
blood — Parties who thus enter into solemn covenant — Symbols used —
Form of oath or engagement — The mouth of the heart — The drinking of
each other's blood — Extent to which the engagement is binding — Exist-
ence of a similar custom in Borneo — Nature and operations of slavery —
Hard lot of the slave-mother — Mode of redemption from slavery— Bonds-
men of the government — Hospitality of Madagascar 176

CHAP. VIII.

Facility with which the means of subsistence are obtained in Madagascar —
Different kinds of food — Flesh of the ox, sheep, and goat, monkeys, and
hedgehogs — Poultry — Fish — Eggs of the crocodile — Locusts and grass-
hoppers— Silkworms in their chrysalis state — Vegetables and grain —
Rice, maize, manioc, arrow-root, yams, sweet potatoes, &c. — Additions
to the above by the introduction of European vegetables — Increasing use
of the Irish potato — Fruits — Pineapples, grapes, oranges, peaches, citrons,
lemons, &c— Manufacture of bread — Methods of dressing their food —
Rice-boiling — Cooking of meat — Limitation of the number of meals in a
day — Custom of washing the hands before meals — Manner of taking food
— Beverage of the people— Distillation by foreigners — By natives — Uses
of tobacco — Expedients used in preparing Malagasy snuff — General mode
of taking snuff by the mouth — Intoxicating quality of the native hemp —
Longevity of the natives — Number and nature of diseases — The Malagasy
fever : its symptoms, progress, European and native remedies — State of
the healing art among the natives — Supposed origin of diseases — Cures
attempted only by divination — Native medicines — Use of the vapour bath
— Of cold bathing — Superstitious observances — The Malagasy god of
medicine 200

CHAP IX.

xii

CONTENTS.

toms at funerals in the southern part of the island, described by Drury —
Property deposited in the tombs— Imagined pollution from touching a
corpse — Badges of mourning — Period of its duration — The manao afana,
or slaughter of bullocks, to avert evil from the deceased — Criminals not
allowed the rite of burial — Places of sepulture' — Size and nature of their
tombs — Costly and gorgeous ceremonies of mourning on occasion of the
death of Radama ; description of his coffin of silver, mausoleum, &c ;
money buried with him ; number of cattle slain — Cenotaphs — Singular
custom of bringing home to the family the bones of those slain in war —
Monumental pillars 226

CHAP. X.

Native expressions of thankfulness — Different forms of salutation — Customs
observed on the return of the sovereign to the capital — Prevalence of
common swearing among the natives — Their use of abusive language —
Amusements of the Malagasy — Smoking — Feasting — Hunting wild cattle
— Description of the mode of taking wild cattle, by Drury — Hunting the
wild boar — Fishing — Mode of catching the crocodile — Games at kicking
— Throwing at the target — The katra or drafts — Musical instruments —
The lokanga and valiha, drums, fifes — Singing, Character of the songs —
Specimens of native poetry — Song for the dead — Dress of the Malagasy
— Materials of which it is composed — Manner of wearing it — The salaka
— The kitamby — The lamba or mantle — Different kinds of lamba manu-
factured by the natives — Coverings for the head — Native sandals —
Articles of foreign manufacture used as clothing in Madagascar — Fond-
ness of the natives for ornaments — Silver chains — Silver rings, beads,
shells— Ornaments, of ivory — Artificial flowers — Perfumes, native and
foreign — Ornamenting the body with scars — Mode of dressing the hair —
The European mode of wearing the hair, introduced by Radama — Tragi-
cal occurrence among the native females in consequence of the innova-
tion 257

CHAP. XI.

Occupations of the Malagasy — Division of labour — Professional employ-
ments— The judges — Officers of the palace — Head-men or elders — Extent
to which offices are hereditary — General division of the people into
freemen, peasantry, and soldiers — Native farming — Culture of rice — Pre-
paration of the soil — Sowing and transplanting the grain — Modes of irri-
gation— General appearance of the country immediately before harvest —
Quality of the grain — Causes of the occasional failure in the crop —
Reaping — Manner of thrashing — Storing the grain — Description of the
granaries or rice-houses in different parts of the country — Culture of the
manioc — Period required for its growth — Extent to which it is used —
Failure of attempts to introduce European modes of agriculture — Rearing
of silkworms — Native methods of manufacturing iron — Situation and
character of the mines — Manner of getting and preparing the ore —
Description of the Malagasy furnace, bellows, &c— Nature of the fuel-
Process of smelting— Native blacksmiths— -Native forge, tools, and articles

CONTENTS.

xiii

of native manufacture — Introduction of the art of shoeing horses — Arrival
of Mr. Chick from England — Astonishment of the natives at beholding
the apparatus of an English forge, and the strength of Mr. Chick — Trials
of strength between the natives and Europeans — Improvements in the
art of working iron, manufacturing cutlery, and wire-drawing — Native
gold and silver smiths 290

CHAP. XII.

Felling of timber — Number of persons constantly employed as woodcutters
— Amount of labour required to convey the timber to the capital — Native
coolies, or bearers of burdens — Method of splitting trees for planks or
boards — Introduction of the use of the saw — Native Carpenters — Charac-
ter of their work — Masonry in Madagascar — Native potteries — Articles
manufactured — Native kilns — Anecdote of Radama — Introduction of brick-
making — Malagasy rope-making, twine- spinning, and basket-making —
Introduction of the art of tanning — Immense quantity of hides provided
by the government — Native methods of spinning and weaving — Simplicity
of the Malagasy loom — Excellence of the native cloths — Preparation of
indigo — Methods of Dyeing — Domestic occupations of a day in Madagas-
car— Native hawkers or pedlars — Fondness of the Malagasy for traffic —
Native markets — Number, designation, order, &c — Prices of articles —
Money-changers — Table of moneys — Value of labour — Foreign commerce
— Chief exports and imports 315

CHAP. XIII.

Government of Madagascar; monarchical and military — Extent to which
the will of the sovereign is absolute — Instance of personal devotedness to
the sovereign — Duties of the sovereign — Importance attached to heredi-
tary rank — Gradations in rank — Members of the royal family — Civil and
military officers — The king's household — Native police — Number and
dignity of honours connected with the public service — Nature of ancient
military tactics and fortifications — Formation of the army after the
European model — Military punishment of burning — Employment of
singing women during a campaign — Revenue of Madagascar — Enumera-
tion of the sources whence it is derived — Veneration of the natives for
the popular traditions and usages supposed to be derived from the prac-
tice of their ancestors — Combination of the regal and sacerdotal character
in the person of the sovereign — National festivals — The feast of the new
vear — Description of the ceremonies observed — Benedictions pronounced
— Number of the cattle slaughtered at the feast — Modes of administering
the oath of allegiance — Animals slaughtered on the occasion — Formation
of new laws — Proclamations and edicts — Different modes of punishment :
spearing, beheading, crucifixion, burning alive, flogging to death, fines,
banishment, or reduction to slavery — The sovereign's decision final —
Operation of native laws on foreigners — National councils — Office and
duties of the judges — Public mode of conducting trials — Code of laws
promulgated by the present queen in the year 18*28 341

xiv

CONTENTS.

CHAP. XIV.

Extensive prevalence of superstition among the Malagasy — Their general
belief in the power of charms and frequent use of divination — Mythology
of the Malagasy — Indefinite ideas of God, of the human soul, and a future
state — Defective sense of moral responsibility — Worship of tutelary
gods — Imagined sacredness of the villages in which the idols are kept —
The idol-keepers — Bearers of the idols in public processions — Origin and
appearance of the national and household idols — Homage paid to them
by the people — Means used in rendering articles otherwise common
objects of superstitious worship — Temples — Sacred stones — Sacrifices —
Appeals to idols in the administration of oaths and the ordeals — Names
of the principal idols — Their supposed antipathies — Anecdotes illustra-
tive of the deceptive pretences of the keepers of the idols — Exposure of
their deceptions by Radama — Public exhibition of the idols — Visit of
Radama to the supposed residence of the idols — Import of the names of
the idol 387

CHAP. XV.

Unfavourable operation of the superstitious opinions of the Malagasy —
Restrictions imposed by the idols at particular times and seasons — Differ-
ent kinds of sacrifices — Localities in which they are offered — Description
of the ceremony of sprinkling the people in the presence of the idols —
Usages observed in sacrificing an ox — The offering of human sacrifices —
The faditra, or means employed to remove diseases and other evils — The
afana, or ceremony performed at the tombs as a means of securing repose
for the dead — Account of the vazimba, their graves, altars, anecdotes
illustrative of the popular belief respecting them — Influence of fear on
the minds of the natives — Ideas of the Malagasy respecting a future
state — Reported appearance of the ghost of Radama — General belief in
the dominion of supernatural beings — Reported origin of divination —
Universal confidence of the people in its decisions — Various modes of
working the sikidy— Offering charms — The soronaand faditra — Influence
of witchcraft, prognostications, &c 416

CHAP. XVI.

Tables or rules framed by the diviners for working the sikidy with beans —
Explanation of the mode of divining by means of the foregoing tables or
rules — Divination also practised with sand — Astrology of the Malagasy —
Pretended means of ascertaining fortunate and unfortunate days— Calcu-
lating the destiny of individuals — Supposed Arabian origin of astrology
and divination among the Malagasy — Names of the moons or months —
Division of each moon or month — Diagram of the months by which des-
tinies are calculated, or events foretold — Difference of the calendars used
on the coast and in the interior — Manner of calculating time — Means
by which it is pretended individual destiny is ascertained 439

CONTENTS.

CHAP. XVII.

Trial by ordeal in Madagascar — Uncertainty respecting its origin — Various
modes practised in different parts of the island — General use of the tan-
gena — Description of the fruit — Cases in which the tangena is employed
— Manner of preferring an accusation among the inhabitants of the inte-
rior— Preparations for drinking the poison — Translation of the invocation
or curse used in its administration — Copious use of rice-water — Appear-
ance regarded as indicating innocence or guilt — Summary death in case
of the latter — Ceremonies attending an acquittal — Mode and effects of
administering the poison-water on the coast — Cases in which it is ad-
ministered to animals and fowls — Motives by which the natives are
induced to employ it — Anecdotes illustrating the fallacy of its decisions —
Probable number destroyed by the poison — Notice of witchcraft among
the Malagasy — Singular instance of its influence recorded by Drury —
General dread of sorcery — Terrible death inflicted on those supposed to
be guilty of it 458

Appendix — Malagasy Language

491

ILLUSTRATIONS.

VOL. I.

PAGE

Portrait of Rafaralahy Frontispiece.

Map of Madagascar 1

Woodcutters' Huts 35

Cattle-feeding 46

Plan of the Capital 92

Head of the chief officer in the Embassy to Europe in 1835 116

Head of another member of the Embassy 117

A native Village 124

Rice-beating, and Gathering and Winnowing Locusts 203

Rice-plate and Pedestal 208

Method of washing the hands and mouth after meals 209

A Malagasy Burial Ground 245

A Family Sepulchre 247

Musical Instruments 373

Mode of thrashing Rice 300

Rice Granaries 302

Iron-smelting 308

Malagasy Loom, &c 326

Tanghinia Veneniflua (Tangena) 461

Procession of Madio 475

HISTORY OF MADAGASCAR.

CHAPTER I.

Geographical situation of Madagascar — Period of Discovery — Extent —
Earliest visitors — Names by vrhich the island is designated by the
Natives — Import of Native Names — Description of the island by
early visitors — Geological features of Madagascar — Minerals: copper,
silver, iron, rock-salt, nitre, plumbago — General appearance of the
country — Elevation of the principal mountains — Account of the appear-
ance, structure, and peculiarities of the Ankaratra range of mountains —
Number, situation, appearance, and extent of the lakes, rivers, springs,
mineral waters — Description of the saline springs at Mandrovy, and
the adjacent scenery in the Betsileo country.

Madagascar, the Great Britain of Africa, and one of the
largest islands in the world, is situated in the Indian, or
Eastern Ocean, and is the principal island in the group
usually designated the Ethiopian Archipelago. It is sepa-
rated from the eastern coast of Africa by the Mozambique
Channel, which is about 150 leagues across, though the
nearest point of Madagascar, Cape Manambaho, is not
more than 90 or 100 leagues from the opposite continent.
East India ships, especially those bound to Bombay, fre-
quently pass through the channel, and, when in want of
provisions, usually resort to St. Augustine's Bay, which is
on the south-eastern shore of the island, being situated in
latitude 23° S. and long. 40° E. The distance between the

I. B

HISTORY OF MADAGASCAR.

Cape of Good Hope and Madagascar, is about 600 leagues :
from Mauritius it is 186 leagues distant; and from the Isle
of Bourbon, 150.

From Cape Amber, or Ambro, its northern extremity,
situated in lat. 25° 40' S., Madagascar extends southward,
about 900 miles, to Cape St. Mary, its southern point,
which is in S. lat 12° 2'. The breadth of the southern
part of the island is about 300 miles ; the northern portion
is narrow, and it is widest in the centre, where it is about
400 miles broad. It has been estimated to contain two
hundred millions of acres of land, but one hundred andfifty
millions would probably be a more accurate computation.

Madagascar is said to have been discovered by Europeans
in the year 1506; it was shortly afterwards visited by
Tristan d'Acunha.

By the Portuguese it was called the island of St. Law-
rence, either in honour of its discoverer, Lawrence Almeida,
or, as stated by early writers, in accordance with a custom
prevailing among them, in honour of the saint on whose
day in the calendar it was first seen. The French, during
the reign of Henry IV., called it Isle Dauphine.

The island had, however, for a long period previously,
been known to the Moors and Arabs, who have visited its
western shores for the purpose of trade. By them it was
called Serandah, and not Serandib, as stated by Rochon,
which there is every reason to believe was the name they
gave to Ceylon.* The inhabitants of Europe had also
been previously made acquainted with its existence by the
accounts of Marco Paulo, whose travels were published in
the close of the 13th century. By the last mentioned tra-
veller the island was -called Magaster.

* See D'Herbelot's Bib. Orient.

HISTORY OF MADAGASCAR.

The word Madagascar is of uncertain import ; and its
use, to designate the island, appears to be of foreign rather
than native origin. The inhabitants appear to be acquainted
with it only as the designation .given by strangers to
their country. The natives themselves have no distinct
specific names for the whole of their island. By those who
reside on the coast it is sometimes called Nosindambo,
" island of wild hogs,'' from the number of these animals
found in the country. In speaking of their country, the
Madegasse usually name the several provinces respectively,
or, if they have occasion to speak of the whole, some kind
of periphrasis is employed, as, Izao rehetra izao, " All this
entirely;" Izao tontolo izao, "this whole;" Ni tany
rehetra, " all this country ;" or, as expressions still more
emphatic, Izao ambany lanitra, " this beneath the skies;"
Ambany tany ambany lanitra, " upon the earth, and be-
neath the skies.'' A familiar expression for the whole
island, is, also, Ny, anivony ny riaka, signifying, literally,
u The, in the midst of the flood," " that which is surrounded
by water," " island.'' * This name, however, though an
appropriate term for " island," is applied by the natives
to Madagascar only. The usual word for " island," in the
native language, is, nosy, as, Nosy Ibrahim, " Isle of
St. Mary."

The descriptions which different writers have given of
Madagascar have been various, and, in many respects, dis-
similar. In general, the representations of its productions,
salubrity, and resources have been such as the hopes of its
visitors have been led to desire, rather than such as their
observations have fully authorized them to make. In the

* Tompony ny anivony ny riaka, " sovereign of the island." This expres-
sion as descriptive of the extent of the sovereignty claimed by the late king
Radama, was placed on his tomb.

B 2

HISTORY OF MADAGASCAR.

sixteenth century, the Dutch thus write : " The riches of
this island are great, abounding in rice, honey, wax, cotton,
lemons, cloves," &c. The French draw a far more splendid
picture : M. de Modeve, in his Memoir respecting the
island of Madagascar, remarks, " Les objets que Ton peut
tirer de Madagascar sont varies a l'infini, cette ile reunit les
productions des deux zones; elle peut fournir abondam-
ment au commerce de l'Asie et de PEurope, le coton, la
soie, les gommes, tous les raisins, l'ambre gris, l'ebenne,
le bois de teinture, le chanvre, le lin, le meilleure fer, tous
les metaux, meme de Tor (!) ; on peut y fabriquer plus
utilement que partout ailleurs, toutes les etoffes de Flnde."
The prize, as thus announced, certainly looks tempting,
but it has never yet answered the eager expectations of
adventurers.

Highly coloured as the above may appear, our own coun-
trymen have shewn themselves equally capable of appre-
ciating its excellencies, and exhibiting its beauties and its
worth. Mr. Richard Boothby, a merchant of London, who
visited Madagascar about the beginning of the seventeenth
century, and published his account in 1644, after describing
its soil, productions, &c, adds, " And, without all question,
this country far transcends and exceeds all other countries in
Asia, Africa, and America, planted by English, French, Dutch,
Portuguese, and Spanish ; and it is likely to prove of far
greater value and esteem to any Christian prince and nation
that shall plant and settle a sure habitation therein, than
the West Indies are to the king and kingdom of Spain ; and
it may well be compared to the land of Canaan, that flows
with milk and honey ; a little world of itself, adjoining to
no other land within the compass of many leagues or miles ;
or the chief paradise this day upon earth." In another
place, after having again spoken of its resources, he adds,

HISTORY OF MADAGASCAR.

w In further commendation thereof, I will take the liberty
of extolling it, I hope without offence, as Moses did the
land of Canaan : ' It is a good land, a land in which rivers
of waters and fountains spring out of the vallies and moun-
tains: a land of wheat and barley, of vineyards, of fig-
trees and pomegranates : a land wherein thou shalt eat
without scarcity, neither shalt lack anything therein: a
land whose stones are iron, and out of whose mountains
thou mayest dig brass.' " *

The geological features of the country are distinct and
prominent; and although hitherto but very partially exa-
mined, present considerable variety. The greater part of
the island exhibits primitive formations, chiefly granite,
sienite, and blocks of exceedingly pure quartz; some-
times large pieces of beautifully-coloured rose-quartz are
met with ; the white kind is used by the natives to orna-
ment the summits of their tombs; cyst, intersected by
broad veins of quartz, and a substance resembling grey
wacke or whinstone, is frequently seen. Many of the
formations are of clay-slate ; and a valuable kind of slate,
suitable for roofing and writing upon, has been discovered
in the Betsileo country, at about a hundred miles from the
capital. Silex and chert, with beautiful formations of
chalcedony, primitive limestone, including some valuable
specimens of marble, with different kinds of sandstone,
are also met with. Finely-crystallized schorls frequently
occur in the Betsileo country, where, embedded in lime-
stone, apparently of fresh-water formation, specimens of
fossils, including serpents, lizards, cameleons, with different
kinds of vegetable fossils, have been found.

No subterranean fires are known to be at present in
active or visible operation; yet in some sections of the
* Osborne's Voyages, Vol. ii. p. 634.

HISTORY OF MADAGASCAR.

country, especially in the Betsileo province, indications of
volcanic action frequently occur, and are strongly marked.
Many of the rocks, for several miles together, are com-
posed of homogeneous earthy lava ; scoria and pumice are
also occasionally discovered, and some of the lavas abound
with finely-formed crystals of olivine.

Besides the primitive and transition formations, and the
rocks of volcanic origin, there are large beds of clay, and
extensive tracts of soil composed of ferruginous earth and
disintegrated lava, rich alluvial deposits, and vegetable mould.
Some of the geological specimens brought home to this
country are evidently carbonaceous, and would favour the
expectation that there are coal formations in some parts of
the island. Limestone has not yet been discovered in the
eastern part of Madagascar ; but coral is abundant on the
coast, and furnishes the inhabitants with excellent lime.

Our acquaintance with the minerals of Madagascar,
though exceedingly limited and partial, is, as far as it
extends, highly satisfactory. If the diamond, and other
costly gems, have not yet been discovered in its mines, and if
its bowels have not yielded the precious metal by which the
new world inflamed the avarice of the inhabitants of the
old, and doomed its own unoffending and aboriginal occu-
pants, first, to a merciless bondage, and, finally, to annihi-
lation; Madagascar is already proved to be rich in the
minerals most useful to man. Silver and copper have been
stated by early visitors to exist in certain portions of the
island : the latter is frequently visible in specimens found
in the country, and brought to England ; and it is still
reported by the natives that the former has been obtained.
Mr. Boothby, indeed, refers to gold brought from this
country : for after observing, " This gallant island of Mada-
gascar affords these several rich commodities," which he

HISTORY OF MADAGASCAR.

enumerates, concluding with gold; he further states, "the
old Earl of Denbigh brought home from this island of
Madagascar, gold sand, which he presented to the king's
majesty and the council-board ; and I was at the council-
board when this gold sand was in question, and approved of."
Had this been correct, it is not likely that the circum-
stance would have been lost sight of, far more vigorous
efforts would certainly have been made to discover this
precious metal. The gold sand in question was, in all
probability, brought from the adjacent coast of Africa.
However this may be, iron ore, a mineral to a nation in the
infancy of its civilization far more valuable than gold, has
been found so rich and abundant as to be rendered avail-
able to the natives, by a rude and simple process of smelt-
ing, for almost every purpose for which it is at present
required. A great part of the interior district of Ankova
abounds with iron. Its quality is good, but the want of
coal, which has hitherto been sought for in vain, renders
the smelting of it difficult In the district of Iraamo, which
lies to the west of the capital, great quantities of iron ore,
in a very perfect state, are found on the surface of the
ground: the portion of iron is so large in some ore, as
perhaps to have occasioned the remark in Rochon, a remark
which is certainly not warranted by facts, that native steel
is found in Madagascar. The iron in the mountain of
Ambohimiangavo is so abundant, that it is called by the
natives, " iron-mountain."

Rock-salt is found near the coast, and nitre has been
met with ; and also, abundance of pyrites, yielding a
valuable per centage of sulphur. The nitre appears like
hoar-frost on the surface of embankments, and other pro-
jecting parts of the ground, and is called by the people,
sir a tan y, salt of the earth : it is not, however, plentiful*

HISTORY OF MADAGASCAR.

Under the superintendence of Mr. Cameron, one of the
missionary artisans, measures were taken a few years ago,
for obtaining, by artificial means, a larger supply of this
useful article. Oxide of manganese has been found about
fifty miles south-west of the capital. A substance resem-
bling plumbago, or black lead, is found in great abundance
in some parts of the island, and is used by the natives to
colour, and polish, or glaze many of their rude articles of
domestic use. Several kinds of ochre, or coloured earth,
have been found,* some of which are used in colouring the
outsides of buildings, &c.

The country next the shore, with the exception of the
south-eastern coast in the neighbourhood of Fort Dauphin,
is flat and exceedingly low. Some parts are apparently
below the level of the ocean, and, consequently, marshy
and incapable of culture. This margin of comparatively
level soil, consisting of rich meadow-land, or rice-grounds,
extends on the eastern coast from ten to fifty miles in
breadth ; on the western side of the island it is from fifty
to one hundred wide, and occasionally extends still farther
towards the interior. In some parts of the eastern coast,
the country becomes suddenly mountainous at the distance
of about thirty miles from the sea. Within the level border,
the whole country, with the exception of part of the
Betsileo and Sakalava districts, is diversified with hills
of varied elevations, and extending in every direction.

In some parts of the island, immense plains stretch, in
comparatively cheerless solitude, over a wide extent of
country ; and at distant points, in varied directions, a small
spot is all that appears under cultivation. Thus, for

* The Rev. J. J. Freeman has recently brought to this country a valuable
collection of the minerals, &c. of Madagascar, specimens of which are
deposited in the Missionary Museum, Blomfield-strcet, Finsbury.

HISTORY OF MADAGASCAR.

example, in travelling from the centre of the island west-
ward, after leaving the inhabited parts of Ankova, about a
week's journey must be perfonned through a desert, before
reaching any villages in the adjoining districts of the
Sakalavas. The surface of the country is in general con-
siderably diversified, and presents the usual characteristics
of primitive, secondary, volcanic, and the other formations
associated with these, in different parts of the globe. In
this respect the island exhibits a greater resemblance to
many portions of South America, or India, than to any
equal section of the adjacent continent of Africa. The
outlines of its varied features are, however, less bold
and stupendous than those of America, and inferior in
dimensions to those of the Asiatic or African continents.
Many parts, especially on the eastern, northern, and
southern borders, may be appropriately denominated
mountainous ; but the altitude of the highest mountains
is greatly below that of several in islands of less ex-
tended boundary in other parts of the torrid zone. The
broad extent of table-land in the interior is itself consi-
derably elevated ; and from it, Ankaratra and other moun-
tains rise, yet the highest are probably not more than
8,000 or 12,000 feet above the level of the sea. Few exact
measurements have yet been taken, but from observations
made by a common level, and from the direction of the
rivers, there is reason to conclude that the highest moun-
tains in the island are, Angavo, near Ambatomanga, in
Imerina, and Ankaratra, the south-west boundary of An-
kova, Andringitra in Imerina, and n.n.w. from Tananarivo
and Iangogora, called also Vigarora, in the northern extre-
mity of the island. The first three of these rise to the
greatest elevation above the level of the sea, the last is the
highest from the base to the summit. By some, the chain,

HISTORY OF MADAGASCAR.

or range of mountains, called Ankaratra, and situated to
the south of the capital, is supposed to be the highest,
and is said to cause, for a distance of thirty miles on its
eastern side, an artificial twilight, of ten minutes or a
quarter of an hour's duration.

The following account of the appearance of the Ankaratra
mountains, and of the country in their immediate neigh-
bourhood, is given by Mr. James Cameron, an intelligent
and scientific artisan, who was for many years connected
with the mission at the capital of Madagascar.

" Southward of Imerina, there is an elevated cluster or
range of mountains, called Ankaratra : they are not higher
than the hills in Imerina, but the ground whence they rise
is high, so that at a distance they appear like the highest
range of an exceedingly elevated chain of mountains. The
face of the country continues to rise in a southern direction
for a distance of probably forty miles, after which the
ascent becomes more steep for the next ten miles. On
this elevated ground is situated a chain of hills, called
Vava vato, or Stone Mouth. This is still a continuation of
the same chain as Ankaratra, but is the most rugged of
any in the country. To the south of this ridge spreads the
lower, though still hilly country of Betsileo ; and to the
west, the district of Mandridrano.

" The summits of Ankaratra are generally basalt in
various stages of decomposition, many of them hard and
solid within, while the external surface is soft and earthy,
and evidently losing a portion every year, from the action of
the atmosphere, rains, &c. Several of the smaller hills
also, in this place, approach more to the sugar-loaf form —
in these, granite predominates. It is on the north side of
this range that the iron pyrites are found, from which
sulphur is extracted at Tananarivo.

HISTORY OF MADAGASCAR.

1 1

" In travelling a distance of about thirty miles along the
north-west side of this range, I do not recollect seeing a
single piece of any other stone than that above described.
But there is a place called Kiotrakiotra, where, for a few
miles, huge masses of granite, and small fragments of
quartz, indicate a change in the nature of the rock. Some
little account of this place, which I wrote on the evening of
the day we passed it, may not be unacceptable.

" Many large stones appeared standing out of the
ground. One that we saw projected horizontally to the
distance of twenty-five feet, forming a kind of cave under-
neath, where travellers are accustomed to lodge.

" The neighbourhood of this cave formed one of the
most romantic and picturesque scenes we had yet seen.
It consisted of a deep, narrow vale, in many places not less
than 500 feet deep, with a considerable stream at the
bottom : the rivulet meandering sometimes through the nar-
row bottom of the vale, and at other times almost lost among
the beautiful green shrubs, which clothed its banks, and were
the resort of several kinds of birds, apparently little dis-
turbed by our intrusion. Wherever the water presented
any extent of surface, numerous waterfowl sported in com-
parative tameness on its surface.

" In the neighbourhood of the cave, the change in the
scenery became more romantic and bold. Masses of rock,
some of them from thirty to fifty feet long, projected from
the side of the ravine, like rudely-shaped pillars, and on
the top of these rested other masses of rock, sometimes
projecting so as to threaten destruction to all below.

" Between the masses of rock, thus strewn in wildest con-
fusion on every hand, many kinds of shrubs were growing
with greater luxuriance than any we had hitherto seen in
our journey. The rivulet, which formerly flowed in a ser-

HISTORY OF MADAGASCAR.

pentine course from one side of the ravine to the other,
now disappeared, and forced its way by a subterranean
passage for at least a quarter of a mile.

" Fragments of rock thrown together in several places,
formed a frightful bridge over the stream. Many of those
masses were more than 100 feet in length, and generally
presented a globular, or rather oval-shaped form. Some,
again, presented massy sides and rather obtuse peaks,
towering from the sides of the valley. Beneath and between
these blocks of granite were extensive caverns, occasionally
twelve or sixteen feet in breadth, connected by passages in
some places so narrow as scarcely to allow a person to pass
between them. These caverns received light through aper-
tures between the stones by which they were formed, but
in some places they were so dark and deep as almost
to forbid the approach of those who were desirous of
exploring them. We penetrated their gloom for a dis-
tance of nearly two hundred yards, and might have gone
much farther had time and strength permitted. The river,
during the dry season, seemed to find a way considerably
lower than the bottom of the caverns, for we neither saw
nor heard any thing of it. But in the rainy season, that
passage must be too small for the waters of the swollen
stream : they must then rush with fearful violence through
the passages we were now exploring. During that season,
when generally the stream both above and below is impass-
able, the projecting masses of rock are used as bridges by
the natives, and afford means of communication between
the opposite sides of the valley, more safe and easy than
any other they could devise for crossing the torrents.

" On looking at those hills called Vava vato from the
north, at a distance of ten or fifteen miles, they present a
most rugged and irregular aspect, resembling an asscm-

HISTORY OF MADAGASCAR.

blage of ruins. On approaching nearer, they appear to be
granite, having almost all their summits, in many places
their sides also, and the valleys between them, covered with
enormous blocks of stone ; many stones in an upright posi-
tion being from forty to sixty feet high ; and some on the
higher hills, which at a distance appeared like towers,
seemed more than a hundred feet in perpendicular elevation.
The strata of a considerable portion of the rock were large,
and ranged in a position nearly perpendicular, apparently
granite or gneiss. Some of it was beautiful in appearance,
and certainly would be highly serviceable for many of the
purposes of civilized life.

" We crossed this chain of hills at two different places,
eight or ten miles distant from each other. The width
across is ten or twelve miles; the romantic scenery of
this highland region was agreeably enlivened by streams
of very pure water, which wound their sparkling course
through most of the ravines and valleys of the pass. In
one of the hills there is said to be a cavern sufficiently
capacious to contain a large number of men. The whole
neighbourhood is stated to be infested with banditti, or
robbers, so that travellers generally go in small companies.
We saw several birds of the falcon kind among the rocks,
but no quadrupeds.

There does not appear to be any chain of mountains
extending north and south through the island. Those
represented in maps, and designated Ambohitsmena, signi-
fying " at the red villages," are probably the Vohidrazana,
forming part of the forest of Alamazaraotra, and the high-
est section of forest west of Betanimena. Ambohitsmena
is a name unknown in the island, and has probably been
given by Europeans visiting and describing the eastern
parts of the island. But though no continuous chain of

HISTORY OF MADAGASCAR.

mountains stretches from one end of the island to the
other, the traveller cannot pass from any one point on the
coast to a section on the opposite shore, without crossing
a number of mountains of greater or less elevation.

The highland scenery of Madagascar, in the central
portions of the island, is diversified by lakes of various
extent and form ; they are also met with in some parts of
the low alluvial countries nearer the sea. Some of these
lakes are remarkable for their natural beauty, others are
esteemed for their utility : many of them are large. Among
the most considerable are Ihotry, situated to the north of
Fiarenana, Imanangora in Antsianaka, Safe in Ambongo,
Imania in the Sakalava country, being about one hundred
miles in length, though not more than a mile wide. To these
may be added Saririaka, (an expressive name, signifying
"image of the ocean,") which lies to the east of the forest
of Bemarana; Anosive, to the south of Tamatave; Ivavongy,
in Betanimena; and Itasy, in Imerina, famous for its fish.
The highly bituminous lake near the river Mangafiafy, is in
the province of Anosy : this remarkable lake is about live
miles in breadth, and extends in length about sixty miles.
In the interior of the same province there is another lake,
whose waters taste as if strongly impregnated with copper.
Excellent fish is found in the greater number of the lakes,
of which there are several others, but the most valuable
are those already named.

On the eastern coast of the island, a series of lakes
extends for a distance of 200 miles. Several of these
are remarkably beautiful, being spotted with islets of
various dimensions, some of them clothed with verdure,
others enlivened with the habitations of men. The annexed
account of the voyage by the lakes, near the eastern shore,
proceeding from the coast to the capital, describes their

HISTORY OF MADAGASCAR.

extent, dimensions, and other peculiarities, which may be
regarded as illustrating a general notice of the lakes in
Madagascar. The water of some of the lakes is fresh ;
of others, brackish ; and of others, decidedly salt.

The traveller proceeding from Tamatave to the capital,
reaches the first lake at Hivondrona. This lake is called
Xosi-ve, which signifies "many large islands," from the
circumstance of there being several in the lake. Proceeding
southward, it assumes two other names in succession. At
its widest part, it is called Sarobakina, " difficult to cross,"
which is peculiarly appropriate, especially in rainy, stormy,
or otherwise unfavourable weather. Farther on, it is
called " Si-anak angaitra, " the place of rofia plants." The
whole length of this lake to Tany-fotsy, may be twenty- two
or twenty- three miles, having about six villages on each
bank.

At Tany-fotsy (i. e. white soil) the traveller pitches his
tent : and the natives must carry the canoes and packages
across the bank to the adjoining lake, a distance of about
a quarter of a mile. A junction has been commenced
between the two lakes. Radama paid particular atten-
tion to this object; and under the superintendence of
Rateffe and Filibert, about eighteen hundred men were
for some time employed in cutting a channel, and removing
the soil. Since the decease of Radama, the labours have
been suspended; and this work, as well as many others
of great national importance, remains unfinished.

South of Tany-fotsy, is the small lake Famunoam-
paninana, :c killing of serpents." This extends about half
a mile in length when a shallow stream commences, called
Ampanirana. The next lake, Ampandran-ety, though wide
at its entrance, gradually becomes narrow, and is succeeded
by Atopiana, " cast," or u thrown," from a custom the
natives ha»-e of throwing a stone or stick in a certain part

HISTORY OF MADAGASCAR.

of it as they pass by, in memory of some fabled event of
olden time. The next is one of the most extensive and
beautiful in the whole series of lakes ; it is called Irangy.
In some places it is narrow ; in others, the width is consider-
able, and crossing it is difficult, from the extremely rude
canoes of the natives, and the numbers of crocodiles with
which its waters are infested. Atakalampona is generally
selected as a resting-place. This village, which is built on
an insulated bank, contains forty or fifty houses ; and nearly
opposite is Ambaribe, an excellent fishing village.

Irangy becomes very shallow towards its termination,
where a bank called Fantomaizina, and covered with trees,
separates it from the adjoining lake Antoby. The bank is
about half a mile across. A narrow stream, called Andra-
nopandrana, where there is scarcely water enough at times
to float the canoes, runs out of Antoby. The next is
the broad lake Andrasoamasay. Here M. Morillion, a
trader from Mauritius, who settled at Tananarivo in 1821,
was unfortunately drowned in 1825. His body was found,
and buried in the bank by the natives. It was afterwards
burrowed up, and partly devoured, by crocodiles. The
natives again got possession of it, wrapped it in cloths, and
placed it in a tree, beyond the reach of these formidable
animals, and having communicated the circumstance to
the friends of the deceased at the capital, his remains
were conveyed thither, and interred in the missionary or
European burial-ground.

Andrasoamasay joins Andrasoa-be, which is the finest
and noblest of the lakes, being from four to six miles in
width, and eight or ten in length, having its borders
enriched and adorned by luxuriant vegetation. At the
southern extremity of Andraso-abe is the small village of
Ivavongy, where an old chieftain has been long found
exceedingly kind and hospitable ; he is a man of large

HISTORY OF MADAGASCAR.

corporeal dimensions — smaller intellectual powers — the
husband of four wives — the father of a numerous race —
mild in disposition — but extremely fond of one of the
greatest sources of evil to his country, ardent spirits.

Near this spot a circumstance lately occurred which
the natives consider as decisive in establishing the power
of the charms of their wise men. An European trader
from the capital was conducting a number of cattle down to
the coast for exportation : the natives advised him to try
the effect of their " ody," or charms, for the protection of
his bullocks in crossing the lake. Deeming hismelf above
all necessity for attention to their superstitions, he disre-
garded their advice, and sent forward the animals. He
soon saw and repented of his error : for nine of his bullocks
were almost instantly seized by the crocodiles, and drawn
under the water ; fearing the loss of the whole, he hastily
desired the " charms" to be prepared, exclaiming, " I shall
lose all — work the ody — bring the charm." To his aston-
ishment, and the triumph of the natives, when the charm
was worked, the rest of the cattle crossed in safety ; and
even those which had disappeared, were in a moment, as
if some invisible agency had dissolved the spell, released,
and, recovering their position, passed over to the opposite
shore.

On the return of the trader to Tananarivo, he related
the circumstance, and expressed his belief in the power of
the Malagasy charms. Being questioned as to the mode
in which the " ody" was worked, the mystery vanished.
The charm consisted in noise. The charmers shouted,
beat the water with branches of trees, both in the canoes
and on both sides of the lake, and thus frightened the
crocodiles, who were unmercifully dragging his oxen to the
deep parts of the lake. The crocodile is known to be

HISTORY OF MADAGASCAR.

timid ; and if resisted by the human species, seeks safety in
retreat.

On the bank of the long and narrow lake Imoasa, the
next at which the traveller arrives, stands the small village
of Ambila. The waters are here brackish, from the junction
between the lake and the sea. The natives are in the habit,
in most places, when the wind is gentle and steady, of
raising sail, by means of their lambas tied to a pole, and
feel not a little mortified, should the traveller, distrusting
their " skill in sailing," object to this mode of saving their
labour, and expediting the voyage.

The lake Imoasa terminates at an isthmus, or bank,
called Andavaka menaruna, " the hole of serpents," from
the number of these reptiles said to have been found there.
This is the widest bank between the lakes. It extends
about three-quarters of a mile: a pleasant and spacious
path leads through a thick wood to the next stream, Hano-
mainty, i.e. black-water; a name correctly bestowed from
the appearance of the water. The stream is narrow and
serpentine, scarcely affording space sufficient for a canoe to
pass. The canoe, if pushed with too much force, strikes
against the winding bank,* and is certainly upset. The
stream afterwards becomes wider, and is from 100 to 300
feet across, but still difficult to navigate, on account of the
quantity of fallen timber strewn in its waters. The scenery
is inexpressibly charming, and well compensates the lover
of the picturesque and beautiful in nature for the incon-
veniences sustained.

Ranomainty joins the Iharoka, the largest river in Beta-
nimena, which falls into the sea to the south of Andevoranto,
a large village, containing from 200 to 300 houses, and
having about 1200 inhabitants. The houses resemble, in
structure, those of Tamatave. The village is a mart for

HISTORY OF MADAGASCAR.

1!)

rice, cattle, and fish. Some Arab traders reside here
purchasing rice from the interior, and forwarding it down
to the coast On the banks of the Iharoka are several
villages; the chief are Maromandia, Ambohibohazo, Ma-
hatsara, and, at a short distance from these, is Vohitsara.
The appearance of the country on the banks of the river,
is remarkably rich and beautiful, exhibiting all the variety
and loveliness of nature in its most pleasing and attractive
forms ; and to the eye accustomed to European scenery, it
would vie with some of the fairest regions, were its
gently-rising grounds, sheltered groves, or spreading lawns,
enlivened by structures, the abodes of intelligence, refine-
ment, and comfort, with temples sacred to Him who
hath weighed the mountains in scales, and the hills in
a balance.

From the Iharoka, the traveller turns westward into a
narrow, serpentine, and deep river, called Alavenonana,
which extends about four miles, where he reaches the
village of Vohitsara. This river is embosomed by rich and
valuable plantations belonging to the natives, and appropri-
ated to the culture of rice, plantains, gourds, sugar-cane, Sec.
The village contains from 100 to 150 houses, and being
situated on an eminence, affords a charming view of the
varied, extensive, and beautiful scenery of the surrounding
country.

Though some portions of Madagascar, and considerable
parts of the district of Ankova in particular, are arid as
well as barren, the country in general is well watered.

The most fertile spots in the island are the valleys.
Most of these abound with rice, the staple food of the
natives,* and a few other vegetables. These valleys are,

* Excepting, perhaps, the Sakalavas, of Menabe, whose principal food i.s
arrow-root.

HISTORY OF MADAGASCAR.

especially in the rainy season, clothed with a rich and
luxuriant verdure, delightfully exhilarating amidst the ste-
rility and wildness of the surrounding regions. The most
extensive valleys in the island are Belisa in the Sakalava
country, and Ambolo in Anosy.

The rivers of Madagascar are numerous ; and many of
them of considerable width, the greater number flowing
into the sea on the western coast; thus the Sambaho, which
passes through Ambongo, and falls into the sea south of
Cape St. Andrew, called by the Malagasy, Jantsanira ; the
Betsiboka, which passes through Iboina, and falls into the
sea not far from Mojanga. It is this river which the Ikiopa
joins at Marovoy,* (a military post,) where the Ikiopa
loses its own name in the united course of the Betsiboka.
The Ikiopa rises south of Angavo, and waters the whole
neighbourhood of the capital, Tananarivo. The Mansiatra
is also an extensive river on the west, falling into the sea at
a bay of the same name, north of Morondava. The Matita-
nana is one of the largest rivers on the eastern coast, and
for its sanctity may be regarded as the Ganges of Mada-
gascar, t The origin of the name of this river is fabulous :
Maty signifies " to die," " dead f tanana, " the hand." It is
said, two giants of extraordinary stature were disputing, one
standing on each side of the river ; during the dreadful con-
test, one seized the hand of the other with such a giant-
grasp as actually wrenched it off. It fell into the river, and
gave it the commemorative name of Maty-tanana, " the dead
hand." There are also other rivers, but all less favourable for
the purposes of trade and commerce, than from their magni-

* Signifying many alligators.

t Some farther notice of this river, the banks of which are the chief
seats of Mohammedanism in the island, will be found in a subsequent
portion of the work.

HISTORY OF MADAGASCAR.

tude a traveller might, on first seeing them, be induced to
expect. At their junction with the sea, most of the rivers
are choked by sand ; in some instances, the same river forms
frequent cascades and falls, in its course towards the ocean ;
and in other places, the descent is extremely rapid, and its
current strong as a torrent, rendering navigation dangerous
if not impracticable.

The gloomy and unbroken solitude of some parts of the
sublime mountain-scenery of Madagascar, is enlivened by
cataracts of varied size, form, and elevation. The principal
cataracts or water-falls in the island are Talaviana in the
district of Tamatave. Farahantsana, about thirty miles west
of Tananarive, in the district of Marovatana ; Ifito, about
half a day's journey from Hivondrona; Iandrianavomby.
in Betanimena; and Moavana, in Mahavelona.

Fountains, or springs, are numerous and valuable, espe-
cially in the more elevated parts of the island. The capital
is supplied with water from the rano-velona, "perennial
springs," which abound in the mountain on which it stands,
or in the low grounds in its immediate vicinity. Some of
these natural fountains are extremely good, and afford an
ample supply of water for all domestic purposes : others
are brackish, and consequently less serviceable.

These are not the only kind of valuable fountains to be
met with in Madagascar. Mineral waters "have been found ;
and a more perfect knowledge of the country would pro-
bably make us acquainted with a greater number than have
yet been discovered. Medicinal springs, as might be ex-
pected, occur in those parts of the country, the external
form of which is evidently the effect of volcanic agency.
Thermae, or warm-springs, occasionally appear; among
which may be mentioned those in the fertile and beautiful
province of Anosy. which are reported to possess valuable

HISTORY OF MADAGASCAR.

medicinal properties, and others near the small and charm-
ing village of Amhohizanahary^ " Village of God." It has
been supposed to have taken its name from some thermae,
or warm-springs, found about half a mile north-east of the
village, and which the natives have regarded as sacred, or
in some way indicative of the divine power.

These springs are called Rano-mafana, or ''warm waters."
The spots in which the springs issue from the soil, are deeply
shaded by a large quantity of closely-woven over-hanging
bamboos, and the wild-fig, whose branches shoot directly
across the stream, and by sending forth innumerable small
fibres, which descend and fasten themselves in the soil
beneath, resemble, in miniature, the banian-tree of India, of
which species the wild-fig of Madagascar is probably a
variety. The immediate cavity whence the waters issue, at
one of the principal springs is an irregular hollow of about
two feet width, and twelve or fourteen inches in depth ; from
this source it flows in a shallow stream till it meets a river
at a short distance, called also Rano-mafana, which winds
its way between the springs and the village of Ambohiza-
nahary. The smell and taste of the springs are highly
sulphureous. The average heat is somewhat below boiling
point. The natives make no use of the springs, but merely
regard them as objects of curiosity. There are warm-springs
also in the Betsileo country, and many indications of former
volcanic action in their immediate vicinity, whereas no indi-
cations of this kind are found in the locality now under
consideration.

The following account of a visit to the saline springs at
Mandrovy, in the Betsileo country, is given by Mr. Cameron,
by whom they were visited in 1834: —

" When we arrived at the first village in Betsileo, we
inquired of our host if there were any natural curiosities

HISTORY OF MADAGASCAR.

in the neighbourhood. He soon mentioned a place where
he described the ground as overspread with salt, and the
springs as having a saltish taste. On the following morn-
ing we visited the spot, and found, within a space of forty
or fifty yards, several springs, the united waters of which
might produce five or six gallons per minute. The water
had an agreeably acidulous taste, apparently highly im-
pregnated with carbonic acid gas, which speedily separated
from the water, adhering in small globules to the sides of
the glass with which we took up some of the water. The
same gas appeared rising in globules from all the springs.

Where the ground was damp it was covered with an
effloresence, as were also the stones which were moistened
by the stream as it flowed from the springs into an adjoin-
ing brook.

" The people of the neighbourhood informed us that
they drive their cattle to the place to drink the water and
lick up the salt, which they say has a remarkable tendency
to promote their fattening for slaughter ; but we could not
learn that the people themselves used, for any purpose
whatever, either the water of the spring, or the salt. The
cattle, daily driven to the spot, had gradually worn away
much of the earth, and exposed several masses of granite,
and also a thin layer of limestone, six or eight inches
thick, which in some places presented the appearance of
marble. The layer, however, did not consist of calcareous
matter alone, but had embedded or enclosed within it
pieces of basalt, quartz, and, apparently, feldspar, all of
which extraneous substances seemed to have been sub-
jected to considerable friction, for they were round and
smooth, like the stones found in rapidly-flowing rivers.
There were also many pieces of decayed wood enclosed in
the limestone, some as thick as a man's finger, others of a

HISTORY OF MADAGASCAR.

smaller size. We found also some varieties of fossils in
the mass. One fragment of stone contained the impression
of a serpent: the part of the body which lay uppermost
seemed to have been crushed, as the lower part only was
distinctly marked.

" When a thermometer was immersed in the adjacent
stream, it stood at 66° ; when in the spring, it stood at 80°.
The specific gravity of the water rather exceeded that of
common water, being in the proportion of 1000 to 1004.
When a little water was added to it, a white precipitate
was immediately formed: the same effect was produced
when nitrate of barytes was added. When nitrate of silver
was added, a white precipitate was produced, which first
turned brownish, and soon afterwards assumed a black
appearance. The water decomposed soap.

" At a place about seven miles distant, near the western
extremity of a succession of volcanic hills, six or eight
miles in extent, there is a spring rising among a mass of
volcanic rocks, in which the thermometer rose to 138°. The
water, however, did not seem to possess any strongly-
marked saline or other properties.

" About seven miles to the east of the region in which
the last spring was seen, we came to a well which was
described to us as possessing the following marvellous
properties : — In appearance, it was said always to resemble
boiling water, while it was at the same time perfectly cold ;
and if any one attempted to bathe, it was said he would
faint on going into the water. On reaching the well, it
presented the appearance of a large cauldron beginning to
boil; and we had no doubt but that the latter part of the
report was correct, as the surface of the water was about
three feet below the ground at the edge of the well, instead
of flowing over its side. The water seemed to find an

HISTORY OF MADAGASCAR.

outlet by a covered passage, as, at a considerable distance
from the well, we heard a rumbling noise under ground,
resembling that which would be produced by the bubbling
of gas through water. The boiling appearance arose from
the discharge of large quantities of carbonic acid gas, which
constantly escaped from the water. This gas, from its
superior density to common air, would certainly, at least in
a quiet day, lie in the cavity of the well, and produce
fainting in those who entered the water. I showed the
effects of carbonic-acid gas upon a grasshopper, which
enabled some of the natives who accompanied us to
understand the cause of those effects which they had
described.

" At a distance of about a mile and a half, we visited
another spring, or rather an assemblage of springs, rising
off a bed of limestone. These springs also emitted great
quantities of carbonic acid gas. One spring, in particular,
discharged it in such abundance as to produce a noise
which might be heard at the distance of several yards. The
strata in this locality appeared to be limestone ; and in
some places there were extensive caves, from the inside of
the roofs of which beautiful stalactitic formations were sus-
pended. What appeared to us remarkable was the great
quantities of salt which was found in a state of effloresence
on these rocks, and also on the damp ground in the
neighbourhood. The natives of this part of the country
also drive their cattle to the place, to lick the salt. Here,
also, instead of planting rice, or grain, or roots, for food,
as is usual in other places, the natives plant a kind of
flag, of rapid growth, which imbibes a large portion of the
saline properties of the soil on which it grows. This rush
they cut several times in the year, burn it, and from the
ashes extract a salt, which they pack up in baskets of rush

HISTORY OF MADAGASCAR.

or grass, sell in their markets, or send to the capital. From
the manufacture of salt of very inferior quality, by the
above simple process, the people of this neighbourhood
are said to be comparatively rich. The salt formed on the
ground was a remarkably pure carbonate of soda, which
we used afterwards in the manufacture of soap in Tana-
narive."

Salt is an article in considerable demand at the capital
and other thickly-populated parts of the country ; and as
the demand has been such as to induce the natives to culti-
vate the rush above referred to, for the sake of obtaining
a supply, it seems remarkable that they have never used
the superior kind of salt furnished by the laboratory of
nature in this part of the country. The probability is,
they have been deterred by considerations more or less
connected with their superstitions.

HISTORY OF MADAGASCAR. 27

CHAP II.

Climate of Madagascar — Fluctuations in the temperature of the atmosphere
— Insalubrity of the greater part of the sea-coast — Healthiness of the
interior — The Malagasy year — Periodical rains — Number and names of
the months — The seasons of the Malagasy year ; import of their designa-
tions— Thunder and lightning — Water-spouts — Whirlwinds — Meteors —
Variety and fertility of the soil — Productions — Forests — Trees and plants,
indigenous and exotic — Honey and gums — Birds, native and foreign
— Fable of the birds choosing a king — Wild and tame quadnipeds
— Fishes ; efforts to obtain a supply for the capital — Amphibious animals
— Account of the crocodiles ; peculiar habits of the animal — Sagacity of
the dog — Fable of the serpent, the crocodile, and the dog — Superstition
of the natives respecting the crocodile— Insects and reptiles.

The climate of Madagascar is exceedingly diversified, both
in the range of its temperature, and the degrees of its
salubrity. The heat, in the low lands and on the coast, is
often intense ; but in the interior and elevated parts of the
country, it is mild, the thermometer seldom rising above 85°.
In the different sections, every variety of temperature may
be met with, from the comparatively oppressive heat of the
coast, to the cold of the lofty Ankaratra range, on the sum-
mit of which, ice may often be found ; or the elevated regions
in the northern part of the island, where showers of sleet
are frequently seen.

HISTORY OF MADAGASCAR.

The temperature of the province of Ankova, in which
the capital is situated, is agreeable to a European, the
greatest heat being about 85°, and the lowest 40°; and
though during the chief part of the day, viz. from nine in
the morning to four in the afternoon, it is often sultry, the
mornings and evenings are always pleasant. In the winter
months, or from May to October, when the ground is occa-
sionally covered with hoar-frost, the thermometer frequently
does not rise above 44° for several days in succession. At
other seasons, the fluctuations in the heat of the atmo-
sphere are extreme and sudden. Often in the morning
the thermometer is at 40°, or even at 38°, and rises to
75° or 80° between two and three o'clock in the afternoon
of the same day. The difference in the temperature, how-
ever, is much less than that which is experienced in the
salubrity of the climate in different portions of Madagascar.
The inhospitality of the whole coast, with but few excep-
tions, is extremely prejudicial to health, and affects the
natives not born in those parts, and foreigners, in nearly
an equal degree.

The miasma pervading the atmosphere over the greater
part of the coast, during the whole of the summer months,
has proved so fatal to the colonists or settlers from
France, who have at different times attempted to establish
themselves in the country, and to the Dutch, who have
visited it for traffic, as to render the not inappropriate
designation of the Isle of St. Mary's. " the grave of the
French," " the churchyard " or " dead island " of the
Dutch, applicable to the coast of the greater part of the
island.

The malaria which engenders the destructive fever, is
supposed to arise from the decomposition of vegetable
substances in contact with stagnant water. The mouths of

HISTORY OF MADAGASCAR.

'29

many of the rivers are choked up with sand, so that their
waters either pass sluggishly into the sea, or, when not
swollen by rains falling in the interior, present the aspect
of a broad, unruffled, stagnant lake, for several miles inland.
The brackishness of the water, and the absence of croco-
diles, often indicate a level below that of the waters of the
sea, while much of the ground on the inland side of the
bank of sand that is raised along the border of the sea,
being below the level of the ocean, extensive morasses
occur in several parts of the coast. Many of the lakes are
also shallow, and receive large quantities of vegetable mat-
ter, furnished in all the rank luxuriance which the heat
and humidity of the climate unite to produce ; and some of
these sheets of water, from the trees and shrubs that grow
around, and rise in different parts of their surface, bear a
greater resemblance to insulated forests than ordinary
lakes.

The effluvia arising from the lakes and swamps near the
coast, is extremely prejudicial to health ; and by incautious
exposure to this, either early in the morning or late in the
evening, the fatal seeds of the Malagasy fever may be so
deeply received into the human constitution as never to be
eradicated. In the central parts of the island, and in
Ankova, said to be the most salubrious province in Mada-
gascar, the fever does not exist, though here, occasionally,
persons who have been affected on the coast, fall victims
under a relapse.

The great elevation of the province of Ankova, perhaps
five or six thousand feet above the level of the sea, the
absence of forests, the general dryness of the soil, the
partial extent to which luxuriant vegetation is spontaneous,
and the cultivation of many of the marshy parts of the soil,
will be sufficient to account for its salubrity. The weather

HISTORY OF MADAGASCAR.

on the coast is generally hot and damp, or rainy ; but in
the interior the rains are periodical, and, in a great mea-
sure, regulate the divisions or seasons of the year.

The Malagasy year commences at the capital with an
annual feast, called the Fandroana. The festival, of which
an account will be given in a subsequent part of the work,
commences about ten or eleven days in each year earlier
than in the preceding year ; consequently, a complete revo-
lution takes place about every thirty-third year. The
circulation of this festival is often the only means that the
inhabitants have of ascertaining their age; and as there
are some who are said to be able to recollect the Fandroana
occurring precisely at the same period, three successive
times, they must be upwards of one hundred years of age.

The months are lunar, but with an additional day, called
the Vintana, or Fortune, to be afterwards explained. There
are four seasons, called the Lohataona, or " head of the
season ;" from loha, "head," and taona, " season," or "year."
Fahavaratra, " the causing or introducing rain," or sum-
mer; from faha, "to cause," and varatra, "thunderbolt."
Farcer a?io, (<end of water," or rain; from far a, "end,"
and rano, " water," or rain ; and Ririnano, " winter.''
These seasons neither commence nor close at the same
period in successive years, as their duration is not fixed by
any month, or day of the month : their length depends on
the weather, or rain. Spring, in one year, may commence
much earlier than in another ; and the rainy season may
last much longer in one year than in another. The seasons,
as their names imply, are not regulated by any specific
number of moons, but depend on certain states of the
weather. The Lohataona, head of the year, or spring,
commences with the budding of the trees, whether that
take place earlier or later in the year. Fahavaratra, the

HISTORY OF MADAGASCAR.

causing of the thunder, begins when heavy showers of rain
fall, accompanied usually by thunder and lightning. Fara-
rano, (end of rain) includes the whole season of cutting and
gathering in the rice, which, with some, commences before
the Fahavaratra has strictly ceased, and may not, in some
cases, terminate with others till the Ririnano is far ad-
vanced. Ririnano, the name given to the winter season, is
highly expressive ; it is a passive participle, from the neuter
verb mariry, the root of which is rhy, " all cleaned off,"
nothing growing, or found verdant." * On an average, the

Lohataona lasts . . one month and a half.

Fahavaratra .... five months.

Fararano one month and a half.

Ririnano five months.

making a total of thirteen lunar months. The Malagasy
year, however, contains but twelve months ; and those
making a total of about 354 days. Ten parts out of the
354 days are taken up with the summer and winter
seasons, during five of which the rain falls almost every day,
and during the other five scarcely any. Of the remaining
three parts, one and a half, or about six weeks, precedes
the rain, and is the time of planting the rice, &c; the
other half, an equal period of about six weeks, following the
heavy rains, forms the autumnal season, and is succeeded by
the dry and cold weather.

The rain, during its season, usually commences every day
at from two to four or six o'clock in the afternoon, and conti-

* Hence the expressions, Mariry ny zavatra, " the things are all cleaned
off — property all gone ;" Mariry ny tany, *• the country is swept of people,
cattle, produce, &c," as after a desolating war ; Mariry ny loha, u the head
is cleaned off;" as when the head is shaved.

HISTORY OF MADAGASCAR.

nues for a few hours ; sometimes it lasts through the night.
It is generally accompanied with heavy thunder, and much
lightning ; and in some seasons, the thunder and lightning
continue during the whole of the Fahavaratra. The season
is generally introduced by the lightning playing in an
evening, perhaps a month before the rains actually com-
mence. It has been remarked also, that a few showers of
heavy rain fall about three or four weeks before this season
commences ; the weather again clears off, and in about a
month, or less, the regular diurnal rains set in. The rain
is occasionally mingled with hail ; and showers of hail-
stones, at times as large as walnuts, or pigeons' eggs, have
proved, at this season of the year, extremely injurious to
vegetation : snow is never mixed with the hail, or seen
alone, even among the summits of the loftiest mountains,
where the fogs are dense and cold, and the sleet often
heavy and continued. A charm called the ody-varatra,
" thunderbolt charm," is generally used at such seasons
by the natives, but, as may be supposed, with far less
effect than their fears induce them to desire.

The trade-winds prevail during the greater part of the
year, and blow from the east, or south-east ; but the rains are
often accompanied by high winds from the west, occasion-
ally north-west, and not unfrequently from the south-west.

The Rambondanitra, " tail of heaven," i. e. waterspout,
and Tadio, " twist," i. e. whirlwind, are not uncommon in
Madagascar, and often exceedingly destructive both to
houses and plantations, even in the interior of the island.
Houses are also at times struck by the electric fluid ; and
scarcely a season passes without the loss of several lives
from the same cause : this is from the forked lightning ;
that which is seen almost constantly of an evening in warm
weather, playing in the horizon, is not forked ; and

HISTORY OF MADAGASCAR.

being perfectly innocuous, forms one of the most beautiful
and splendid phenomena in nature, to be witnessed in
Madagascar.

Meteors are occasionally seen, and earthquakes are not
unknown. Besides the effects of these convulsions of
nature, as experienced in some of the villages, the capital
itself has been shaken by an earthquake within the last
twenty years, viz. since the Missionaries arrived there.
Among the accounts of remarkable events preserved by
an intelligent native, is the record of an occurrence of
this kind which took place on the 21st of Alahamady, that
is, about the end of March, 1829, when a piece of ground,
or large portion of the surface of the earth, situated to the
east of Antananirivo, was removed to a considerable dis-
tance from its former position.

The soil in many parts of Madagascar, especially in
several of the beautiful and extensive valleys of the island,
may justly be denominated fertile. Large portions of the
table-land of the interior, and of the mountainous part of
the island, are, however, rocky and sterile, and much of the
low land near the coast appears little better than a pesti-
lential swamp, or unwholesome morass, while the border
extending to the sea is often sandy and barren. The soil of
many parts is nevertheless mellow, prolific, and susceptible,
in a high degree, of cultivation ; while it appears sufficient
to yield the means of support for a vastly larger population
than the island at present contains, or is likely to contain
for many generations to come. From the varieties of soil
which the different sections of the country exhibit, it seems
eminently adapted not only to yield a far greater abundance
of the articles at present cultivated, but to be well suited
to the growth of every valuable production of countries in
the temperate or the torrid zone.

I. D

HISTORY OF MADAGASCAR

The vegetable productions of Madagascar are numerous
and valuable. Notwithstanding the sterility of the granitic
mountains, and the bare, or moss or fern-clad plains of
some portions of the interior, the shore, in general, is
woody; groves, with pleasing frequency, adorn the land-
scape; shrubs and brushwood decorate and clothe many
parts of the island. The vast extent, the unbroken solitude
and gloom of its impenetrable forests, where, under the
continued influence of a tropical sun and a humid atmo-
sphere, the growth and decay of vegetation, in its most
uncontrolled spontaneity, has proceeded without interrup-
tion for centuries, present scenes of extensive and gigantic
vegetation, in sublime and varied forms, rarely, perhaps,
surpassed in any part of the world. Immense forests traverse
the island in all directions, within which may be expected
and realised all that is imposing, and wonderful, and vene-
rable in the vegetable kingdom, where, for thousands of
years, "no feller has come up against them," nor have the
footsteps of man ever broken their deep and impressive
silence.

The difficulty of exploring these forests, however inviting
to the botanist by their promise of novelty, variety, and
value, is incalculable ; partly on account of the impene-
trable masses of underwood, and the abundance of enor-
mous parasitical plants, which entangle and obscure his
way at almost every step ; * partly from the insalubrity of
the deep recesses, where no air circulates freely; and
partly from the very situation of the forests themselves,
stretching up the sides of precipitous mountains, spreading

* Some idea may be formed of these impervious masses by the fact, that
an immense army has at times eluded the observation of its victorious pur-
suers, merely by one of these almost impenetrable thickets intervening
between them.

HISTORY OF MADAGASCAR.

over hills broken by sudden and deep chasms, or tenaciously
occupying an under-soil, from whence the upper has been
washed away by heavy rains and torrents, leaving merely
a net-work of roots and fibres, with fallen and decayed
timber, to support the foot of the passenger.

The four principal forests in the island are, Alamazaotra,
Ifohara, Bemarana, and Betsimihisatra, all of which, how-
ever, unite, and form one immense belt of forest, traversing,
with occasional interruptions, nearly all the provinces in the
island. These forests assume, as may be expected, different
names in the different provinces which they intersect.

Amidst the recesses of the forests are numerous immense
caverns, which are often frequented in times of war as
places of retreat,* and at other times used by the jiolahy,
or brigands, to conceal themselves and their plunder.
These retreats are seldom known, except to those who live
in their immediate neighbourhood, hence they are but
rarely discovered by persons from other provinces.

The forests yield abundance of timber, of varied durabi-
lity and value ; they also furnish dye-woods, with suitable
wood for cabinet-work, carpentry, and ship-building. To
the patrons of botany, Madagascar presents a rich, exten-
sive field, scarcely penetrated, almost entirely unexplored,
yet promising a choice and abundant harvest. This is evi-

• A curious instance of this kind occurred some time ago in the Sakalava
country. Radama, with a large army, undertook the subjugation of the
province. At the close of the campaign, he married Rasalina, daughter of
the king of the Sakalavas. Referring afterwards to the war between
Radama and her father, she remarked to some officers who had accom-
panied the king, " We saw you, during your whole march, and observed all
your movements in search of us. We were near you in the woods, and
concealing ourselves in caverns ; and on one occasion you actually
walked over our heads, without ever imagining we were so near." Yet there
were several thousand persons with Radama, and as many with the Sakalava
prince.

HISTORY OF MADAGASCAR.

dent from the fact, that of the four hundred plants, collected
by two botanists from Germany who visited the island some
years ago, one hundred are reported to be new or unde-
scribed species, and two hundred new varieties. An account
of many of these was given in a description of plants in
Mauritius, published by order of His Excellency the gover-
nor, the late Sir R.T.Farquhar. Speaking of the botany of
the island, after their visit in 1822 and 1823, Messrs. Hilsen-
berg and Bojer observe, " An exact enumeration of all the
indigenous Madagascar plants, is, and will long remain, a
desideratum in botany. Centuries must previously elapse,
and the knowledge can only be obtained through the exer-
tions of the sons of the north, who will render the climate
of Madagascar less prejudicial, by extending the limits of
its cultivation, and exploring the hitherto unexplored dis-
tricts. The productions of the west, north, and southern
coasts, and of all the interior, remain entirely unknown,
and the slender documents that have been furnished as to
the vegetation of the north-east by the French naturalists,
most of whom have perished from the effects of the climate,
serve rather to stimulate than to satisfy a botanist's curio-
sity. We were so fortunate as to be the first botanists who
penetrated the interior of the island with a view to study
its vegetable resources, which, though possessing some
points in common with other maritime countries, yet pre-
sent many singular features ; and of which we propose, at
some future period, to publish scientific descriptions. Still
we must frankly confess, that we but traced a slender path
towards the approaches of those immense and inexhaustible
natural riches, of which the most creative fancy can hardly
pencil a sketch."

Without, in the present work, attempting a description
of the greater part of the plants and trees of Madagascar ;

HISTORY OF MADAGASCAR.

among its many valuable and indigenous productions, it
may not be unsuitable to mention the following : —

The ravinala, urania speciosa; fotabe, barringtonia
speciosa ; filao, casuarina equisetifolia ; baobab, adan-
sonia, found abundantly on the western coast ; the highly
valuable rofia, a species of cyrus; ampaly, a species of
morus, whose hard leaf is used to polish wood- ware ; ebony,
the finest kind of diospyrus ehenaster ; avoha, or dais
Madag. ; from which a coarse kind of paper has been
manufactured on the eastern coast; tapia edulis, on which
a native silkworm is extensively reared; the tamarind,
which abounds on the western coast, but will not thrive in
the interior; amiena, urtica furialis, on which the native
voaloboka, or Madagascar grape, is often trained; aviavy,
a species of Indian fig, and amontana and voara, other
species of fig ; Indian betel ; foraha, callophyllum inophyl-
lum, the dragon tree ; the vakoa, (vaquois of the French,)
or pandanus, of which there are three species known, viz.
P. ho/a, P. sylvestrisj P* longifolius pyramidalis, the last
being found in Antongil bay ; and the bamboo, bambusa
arundinacea, found in some parts so abundant as to
have given its name, volo, to a part of the country called
I-volo-ina.

To these may be added the azaina, (azign of Chapelier,)
which has been regarded by some as the most useful tree in
Madagascar. It is the chrysopia fasciculata. Three other
species of it have been met with, viz. verrucosa, pomifera,
and parviflora. They belong to the family of the guttifercc,
and produce a great quantity of yellow juice or resin, called
by the natives kitsy, and used by them in fastening knives,
&c. into their handles. The tree is used for the construc-
tion of canoes ; which are made by scooping out the trunk.
The hymencea verrucosa is also found, and affords a

HISTORY OF MADAGASCAR.

large supply of gum copal. The voahena abounds, which
yields the gum elastic ; the roindambo, a species of smilax,
but not the true sarsaparilla ; the avozo, laurus sassafras,
and belahy, a species of simaroba. Zahana, bignonia
articulata, is used for spear-handles, walking-sticks, &c,
and partly for the same purposes, the voankitsihity, or
bignonia Tel/aria, of Boyer ; zozoro, is the papyrus of
Madagascar ; several species of hibiscus and mimosa are
also found; the former is used for the manufacture of
cordage, and a coarse beaten cloth ; the latter, called fano, is
frequently planted near the tombs of the Vazimba, in
Imerina.

There must also be added to the list, the seva, buddleia
Mad. ; the cytisus caja, or pigeon-pea, (native name
ambarivatry ;) the songosongo, a noble species of euphorbia,
employed as a common fence in cultivated lands ; laingio,
sophonicus lingum, a plant used by the natives in cleaning
their teeth ; and the tangena veneniflua, of which tree, and
its medicinal qualities, a description will be given in the
account of the ordeal of tangena, in which it is employed
with such fatal effect.

Madagascar yields also an ample supply of spices ; e. g.
the agathophyllum aromaticum, called by the natives,
ravintsara, " the excellent leaf," on account of its delicious
flavour ; the longoza, curcuma zedoaria ; also ginger, wild
pepper, capsicums, and turmeric, called tantamo, curcuma
longa* There abounds also fary, sugar-cane ; landihazo,
the cotton plant ; paraky, tobacco ; rongona, hemp : and the
indigo plant, besides several trees and plants used by the
natives in dyeing.

* For several of the scientific designations of the native plants above
noticed, we are indebted to Professor Bojer, of Mauritius, who kindly
supplied them to Mr. Freeman, on his late visit to that island.

HISTORY OF MADAGASCAR.

Of native productions, used as articles of food, must
be specified rice, as holding the principal place.* Of the
sorts cultivated in Madagascar, modern botanists have
enumerated eleven varieties. The oldest people in the
country agree in affirming, that this article of food, which,
with the exception of the Sakalavas, may be regarded as
the staff of life to the Malagasy, is of comparatively recent
origin. This opinion may probably, however, refer more
strictly to the introduction of rice into the interior of the
island, and its cultivation there, as Flacourt gives a descrip-
tion of the different kinds of rice cultivated in the island
before his time, nearly two hundred years ago.

The cocoa-nut is also thought to be of recent date in
the island, and is supposed to have been borne by the
waves from some other soil, and washed to the shores of
Madagascar about one hundred and fifty years ago. The
bread-fruit tree is of still more recent introduction. Plan-
tains and bananas have been known from time immemorial.
There are also several kinds of yams, called by the natives,
ovy ; the manioc plant, also called manga-hazo ; Indian
corn, or maize, and large millet; several kinds of beans,
gourds, melons, pine-apples, and earth-nuts. Lemons,
oranges, citrons, limes, peaches, and mulberries also flourish
luxuriantly ; some of which, it is said, were first planted by
Flacourt in the south of the island. Many edible roots
and vegetables grown in the neighbouring islands, at the
Cape of Good Hope, and in Europe, have been introduced
within the last few years, partly by the late James Hastie,
esq. and Mr. Brady, and still more extensively by the

* So general is the use of this article of food, that in the ordinary lan-
guage of the country, to take a meal is to eat rice ; whatever besides may
appear in the most sumptuous banquet, being only an accompaniment
to rice.

HISTORY OF MADAGASCAR.

members of the Mission. To the latter the island is
indebted for several varieties of the Cape vine, the Cape
fig, quinces, pomegranates, and, as an experiment, wal-
nuts and almonds. Coffee has been found to succeed well.
Wheat, barley, and oats have been produced, but are not
much prized by the natives, and do not seem to flourish in
their soil. The European potato is extensively cultivated,
and highly esteemed.

Flowers are numerous, and rare. It is, however, only
during half the year that the gardens present an inviting
appearance, excepting those whose low situations admit of
their being watered by channels from the rivers and foun-
tains, or other artificial means. The alternation of long
seasons of heavy rain and extreme drought, are unfavour-
able to the culture of flowers.

Honey and wax are abundant in or near the forests,
in which also are found a number of valuable gums ; and
not fewer than ten or twelve kinds of oil, including that
of the palma-christi, are obtained from the numerous
vegetable productions of the country.

With the number and peculiarities of the feathered tribes
of Madagascar, we are but imperfectly acquainted ; yet no
field of research appears more interesting, or promises to
the student in this department of the Creator's works, a
more ample reward. Domestic poultry is abundant, and
may be obtained at a reasonable price. Akoho is the native
name for fowls, with the addition of lahy to signify the
male, and vav y the female. There are said to be several
kinds of pheasants, called by the people, akoho-ala, wild
akoho, or fowl of the woods ; partridges are also met with,
but they are smaller in size than those of Europe. The
akanga, guinea-fowl, both wild and tame, is common, and
found in considerable numbers.

HISTORY OF MADAGASCAR.

Besides the birds which appear to be natives of the
island, peacocks, turkeys, geese, and ducks, with an im-
proved kind of fowl, have been introduced ; and the latter
are reared in such abundance, that numbers of them are at
times sent to the Isle of France for sale. There are several
kinds of pigeons in the island, and the turtle-dove, called
domohina, is found in the woods. Birds of the eagle or
falcon tribe are met with in the less frequented parts of
the island; crows, hawks, and kites are also seen. The
screech-owl is called by the natives vorondolo, or, bird
of death; lolo is the name of a disease, and, when used
figuratively, signifies malice. Some writers have stated
that the beautiful flamingo, called by the natives tamby, is
found in Madagascar ; but no one of the species has been
seen by any late resident in the island. There is a large-
beaked bird inhabiting the desert^ called sama, but the
description given of this bird does not answer to that of the
splendid flamingo. Wild ducks and geese, and other water-
fowl, abound in the neighbourhood of the lakes and rivers ;
snipes are also met with.

Though the woods and forests are peopled with several
varieties of paroquets, and other tribes of splendid and
beautiful plumage, but few of melody in song enliven the
places of their resort. A bird of the ostrich kind is said to
frequent the most desert places of the island. If a bird of
this species exist in the country, the story of the ambas-
sadors, to which Marco Paulo refers, may not be totally
void of foundation.*

* The people of the island report, that at a certain season of the year
an extraordinary kind of bird, which they call rukh, makes its appearance
from the southern regions. In form, it is said to resemble the eagle, but is
incomparably greater in size, being so large and strong as to seize an ele-
phant, and to lift it into the air, from whence it lets it fall to the ground,

HISTORY OF MADAGASCAR.

We have only noticed some of the more useful and
conspicuous among the feathered tribes: that the birds
are numerous, and exhibit many distinguishing charac-
teristics, may be gathered from the following popular
fable, under which some Malagasian iEsop has expressed
his ideas of the difficulties attending the selection of a
king, the extent of obligation devolving on the subjects,
and the facility with which the determined and the power-
ful set aside all engagements with those who are unable

in order that when dead it might prey upon its carcass. Persons who have
seen this bird assert, that when the wings are spread, they measure sixteen
paces in extent, from point to point, and that the feathers are eight paces
in length, and thick in proportion. Messer Marco Paulo, conceiving that
these creatures might be griffins, such as they are represented in paintings,
half birds or half lions, particularly questioned those who had reported
their having seen them, as to this point; but they maintained that
their shape was altogether that of birds, or, as it might be said, of
the eagle. The grand khan having heard of this extraordinary relation,
sent messengers to the island on the pretext of demanding the release
of one of his servants who had been detained there ; but in reality,
to examine the circumstances of the country, and the truth of the wonder-
ful things told of it. When they returned to the presence of his majesty,
they brought with them, as I have heard, a feather of the rukh, positively
affirmed to have measured ninety spans, and the quill-part to have been
two palms in circumference. This surprising exhibition afforded his majesty
extreme pleasure ; and upon those by whom it was presented, he bestowed
valuable gifts.

On this marvellous account, the intelligent editor of Marco Paulo observes,
" All who have read the stories of the Thousand-and-one Nights, must be
acquainted with the size and powers of this extraordinary bird, there called
the roe ; but its celebrity is not confined to that work. ' Rukh,' says the
Arabic and Persian Dictionary, ' is the name of a monstrous bird, which is
said to have powers sufficient to carry off a live rhinoceros.' " Its existence
seems indeed to have been universally credited in the East, and those Arabian
navigators with whom our author conversed would not hesitate to attest a
• fact of such notoriety, but they might find it convenient, at the same time,
to lay the scene at a place so little frequented as the southern extremity of
Madagascar, because the chances were small of any contradiction from
local knowledge. Mr.Marsden supposes this bird to have been nothing more
than the albatross of the sea, or the condor of Africa or America

HISTORY OF MADAGASCAR.

to resist. The translation of this fable is furnished by
Mr. Baker.

On a certain occasion, it is said, the birds, having no king,
assembled to inquire who should be elected sovereign:
when the land-fowl and the water-fowl first discussed the
question, the land-fowls inquired of the water-fowls " Shall
a sovereign be sought from amongst us, or you ?" " Amongst
you," replied the latter, " will we seek a suitable king ; for
with us there is none good." " We agree," said the land-
fowl : " gather yourselves together to select your sovereign,
and we will pass one by one through your assembly, that
you may see who is most suitable." To this the water-fowl
assented.

Then the water-fowl came on land to the foot of a hill,
and the land-fowl assembled at the top of it. The water-
fowl then sent the Asirity to ascertain if all the land-fowl
were assembled ; when all being arranged, the latter sent first
of all the tararaka, to pass through the assembly ; but when
he was passing in review, the water-fowl exclaimed, " Who
would make this contemptible tararaka sovereign, a rave-
nous bird, forsooth, that sleeps by day ?" So when they
refused to accept of the tararaka, he stood on the opposite
side ; and after a while the papango (kite) was sent, and
whilst he stood amidst the water-fowl, some of the land-fowl
said, " Come, let us make this sovereign f but some of the
water-fowl exclaimed, " Who would make this sovereign ?
he eats rats !" So they would not agree ; they then sent the
voromahery (hawk,) and some said, " Let us make this the
king." Others rejoined, "This, indeed, we will make
supreme." Some, however, objected, "Make this sove-
reign ! he steals and eats chickens, and there is not much
difference between chickens and some other birds ; who
would make him sovereign ?" So he was rejected.

HISTORY OF MADAGASCAR.

The fable brings forward in a similar manner the kituki-
tukia, a thin bird, the size of a pigeon; the goaika, a kind
of crow, striped black and white ; the takatra, (that eats
frogs,) a small bird, the size of a blackbird, objected to on
account of the proverb, " The takatra on the side of a
rice-plat sleeps not, but disturbs his spirit with watchings,
and because of his ugly voice, 4 mitakatakatra.' " Then came
the fihiaka ; but he steals chickens. The vanobe (a large
stork,) but they laughed at his long neck, and objected to
his eating their food, frogs. The vorompotsy, (white bird)
about the size of a crow, quite white; and of the stork
species. The vorombato, (rockbird) size of a crow, of many
colours. The fodilahimena, a bird the size of a sparrow,
perfectly red. He wras admired as beautiful, but objected
to, as too small. The next is asikirity, a bird as large as
a wild pigeon; as likewise the next, asintima, then the
lorohitra. According to the fable, many others, whose names
are not specified, passed in review, until the akanga, (guinea-
fowl) came. Him they chose, and appointed sovereign, and
in the evening all were sworn to allegiance, and denounced
if not attending on the following day. The appointment
of a king was, however, rendered void by the hail, for
a shower happening to fall, the vulture professed to think
that God was judging or condemning them for appointing
so inefficient a king, when one by one they all forswore
their allegiance, and departed, each to his home, leaving the
weak, as before — a prey to the strong.

The word vorona signifies bird, and is prefixed to the
name of many birds, as the following : —

Voromahazo, voromailala — tame pigeon : Vorombaazaha,
(literally) — white people's birds, i.e. duck : vorombe, goose :
vorombango, vorombola, vorombozaka — a bird much ab-
horred by the people, and thence called bozaka, grass, fuel :

HISTORY OF MADAGASCAR.

voromjago, vorompotsy — a white bird about the size of
a pigeon or sea-gull ; supposed to be a great favourite with
the cattle, from the circumstance of its following the herds,
and feeding on the insects found on the bodies of the
oxen : vorompamo, voronakondro, (lit.) bird of the banana,
being a blue and brown bird, the size of a pigeon : voron-
drano, (lit.) of water: voronandro, (lit) — of day: vorondolo,
the abhorred owl : vorondoza, vorondreo — a blue bird of the
desert, the size of a pigeon: vorondriaka — of the flood:
vorondrv, vorongo, voronkahaka — like a crow, with a
white neck : voronkohy, voronosy — of the goat : vorontiada,
vorontiaka, vorontianomby — beloved by cattle : vorontsiloza
— not dangerous or dreadful, a turkey.

Although the quadrupeds of Madagascar extend to
but few varieties, they comprehend the kinds most use-
ful and essential to a nation in the early stages of its
civilization. Horned cattle are numerous, both tame and
wild. Many of the latter resemble, in shape and size,
the cattle of Europe. The former are of the zebu, or
buffalo kind, and have a large hump or bunch on the back
between the shoulders. Herds of cattle constitute the
principal wealth of a number of the chiefs or nobles of the
island, and not only furnish a large portion of their means
of subsistence, but are exported in great numbers to the
Islands of Bourbon and Mauritius, and furnished to ship-
ping visiting the coast for supplies.

Individuals residing in the capital, who possess large
herds of cattle, generally send them under the care of
their slaves into some unenclosed part of the country,
fifty or a hundred miles distant, where they are kept till
required for the home market, or sent to the coast for
sale or exportation. Many that are kept up and fed,
resemble the prize animals of the English market, and

HISTORV OF MADAGASCAR.

are reserved for some distinguished occasion of domestic,
civil, or religious festivity. Their mode of feeding their
oxen is singular. Each village has its fahitra, or rather
cattle-folds, into which the horned cattle, for security, are
driven every evening, and whence they go forth to pas-
turage in the morning. Cattle are also kept in the fold
for the purpose of being fattened.

The fahitra is an enclosure, usually a large square pit
or excavation, dug out in front of the owner's house, and
within the walls by which the family residence is sur-
rounded. It is generally about six yards square, and
about five feet deep. A sort of shed is sometimes erected
in it, under which the provision is placed for the cattle.

The provision is sometimes placed in a kind of rack, but
it is also placed so high, that the animal is compelled to
stand, the whole time of feeding, in a position that forces

HISTORY OF MADAGASCAR.

the chief weight of its body on its hind legs. Whether
this custom originated in accident or design, is uncertain,
but it is universal, and is supposed to aid in fattening the
animal better than our European mode of allowing them
to stand on a level floor. Sometimes animals are fed in
this manner for three or four years, and attain an enor-
mous size, especially those belonging to the rich, and
intended for the day of slaughter at the annual feast, or
some other season of rejoicing and display.

Besides cattle, sheep, and swine, goats are also numerous.
The sheep, which appear to be aboriginal, resemble those
of the Cape of Good Hope, covered with short hair instead
of wool, and having large tails, that weigh from ten to twenty
pounds each. Their flesh is considered greatly inferior to
the mutton of Europe.

Tame swine are of comparatively modern introduction,
and, from the name soa, or kisoa, seem to have been
brought from some part of India. There is a species of
wild hog in the forests, said to have two short horns grow-
ing from the snout. It is supposed by some to resemble
" the wild boar of Africa." The substances supposed to
be horns appear to be only the large tusks which grow
out of the upper jaw, and running upwards towards the
eyes, through a kind of groove in the flesh at the edges of
the snout, in some respects resemble horns. Hedge-hogs,
(tandraka) of which there are several species, are numerous,
and their flesh is occasionally eaten by the natives. To
these may be added an animal of the badger kind, found
chiefly, if not exclusively, in the Sakalava country; it is
called fosa.

Dogs and cats, both wild and tame, abound in most
parts of the island. The wild cat, called kary, though
exceedingly beautiful, is an object of great terror to the

HISTORY OF MADAGASCAR.

natives, who consider it an animal of ill omen. The native
dogs are small, and the attempts to introduce the New-
foundland and mastiff species have not succeeded.

Among the wild animals may be mentioned the baboon,
called by the natives tratratratra. Of this animal there
are two varieties, as well as of the amboanala, wild dog of
the forest. A species of monkey, found also in the woods,
is occasionally killed and eaten by the natives : there are
also two other kinds of monkey, both having long rough
hair ; one kind is as large as a spaniel dog, the other is
exceedingly small.

The following interesting particulars, related by the late
James Hastie, esq., British resident at the capital, appear
to refer to the larger of the two kinds last mentioned. In
the journal of one of his expeditions to the north of the
islands, he remarks: — "The solicitude of the monkey
tribe for their young has often been noticed. Wishing to
have a few, I shot several, and, among them, unintention-
ally, some females carrying their young ones. When
alarmed, they carefully conceal these under their arms,
and often place themselves in the fork, or behind the
branch, of a tree, so that it is not easy to see the young.
I shot a female on a very high branch, and when she had
tumbled within twenty feet of the ground, she let fall a
young one, which happened to alight on a bush very near
me. In this position it was seen by a male, possibly its
father, who immediately descended the tree, and, grasp-
ing the little one hastily, regained his elevated post, and
actually cried as he looked down at the mother, with whom
a second young one was discovered clinging closely under
her arm : this latter was taken from her with some diffi-
culty. 1 shot another mother, the young one of which fell
to the ground, and immediately leaped upon one of my

HISTORY OF MADAGASCAR.

dogs, that had long soft hair, an animal so very docile and
quiet, that she did not attempt to remove this strange com-
panion until it endeavoured to get under her fore-leg,
which not being able to effect, it clambered up a branch,
and was soon received by one of its own species.

"The boys who followed me brought several young
monkeys, whose mothers had been shot, to the camp.
I took two of the largest, and placed them on some
branches put up for shelter outside my tent; but they
continued to get together, and each being desirous of being
carried as they were accustomed to be, they constantly
grasped each other, and fell to the ground, where they con-
tinued to struggle, each trying to get under the arm of the
other, until separated."

Besides the animals already mentioned, there is a spe-
cies of fox with a large bushy tail; the animal is called
amboahaolo; also a kind of wild dog which haunts the
caverns among the rocks in the neighbourhood of the
villages. In the forests, brown and grey squirrels are
numerous; besides these, and rats and mice, the large-
winged bat is found in many parts of the island, and is at
times eaten by the natives.

During the reign of Radama, horses and other useful
animals were brought to the island. The horse is held
in great estimation by the people; a good horse having
been frequently sold for from sixty to one hundred pounds
sterling. They have been greatly multiplied latety, and
their value has consequently decreased.

The crocodile is the most numerous and conspicuous
among the amphibious animals of Madagascar : these
ferocious creatures swarm in the rivers and lakes, to the
great terror of the natives, and render navigation in their
fragile and unsteady barks, often exceedingly perilous,
i. E

HISTORY OF MADAGASCAR.

In size, the crocodiles vary in different parts of the island:
the largest that are found in the lakes on the eastern
coast do not usually exceed fifteen feet in length ; but in
the Sakalava country, they are said to attain a greater size,
and to manifest a more perilous ferocity. Their body is
of a brown or stone colour, reddish on the breast, and
yellow underneath the belly. That the rivers and lakes
are full of them, and that it is unsafe to walk along their
banks, is an exaggerated statement. That they exist in
the rivers is true, and to bathe or swim or ford in some
places is hazardous ; but there is no danger in walking on
the banks of any of the waters of the island. Crocodiles are
found in most rivers or lakes between the mountain torrents
of the interior, and the partially salt waters of the coast ;
though there are many large rivers in which neither these
reptiles, nor any of the fish on which they prey, are ever
found. This is perhaps caused by the coldness of the
water, and the rocky barrenness of the beds through which
these rivers flow.

In the brackish water, extending from the junction of
the river with the sea, to a distance of about seven miles
or more towards the interior, crocociles are never found;
nor in water absolutely salt. Their favourite places are
the deep rugged banks of a river or lake overhung with
trees, and containing numerous cavities in which they can
hide themselves, having also a gradually sloping sand-
bank, up which they can crawl to deposit their eggs.
In such situations they abound, and can often be heard
at the bottom of the water, and especially underneath
the overhanging trees, uttering a shrill sound, not much
unlike the mewing of a kitten. In some parts, the natives
affirm that they are so numerous, as to cause the place to
resemble a plain covered with bullocks. They feed prin-

HISTORY OF MADAGASCAR.

cipally upon fish, and may be seen and heard chasing their
prey in the waters of the lake with astonishing velocity,
and apparently in concert with each other. They fasten
their teeth upon any animal that approaches in silence
their domain. Bullocks are often seized as they are
swimming across the water, and are sometimes successfully
attacked whilst drinking. But besides preying upon the
animals that venture within their reach, they seize and
eat with great voracity their own young. They have the
sagacity to watch at those places where the females deposit
their eggs, for the appearance of the young, which, on
bursting the shell, usually run directly to the water.
Many of the natives state that they have often seen a line
of old crocodiles station themselves near the banks on
which eggs have been deposited ; and when the young ones
have, in emerging from their shell, hastened to the water,
their first progress through this their genial element, has
only been a passage to the open sepulchres edged round
with terrific teeth, which the extended jaws of the close-
formed file of full-grown crocodiles have presented, and by
which they have been instantly devoured.

Sometimes the young crocodiles take the wrong direction,
and are caught by the natives in the rice grounds. Many
of the crocodiles' eggs are destroyed by birds, especially
by vultures, and also by serpents, but many more by the
natives, who take off the rind or shell, boil the eggs, and
dry them in the sun ; after which, they are preserved for
use or sale. A single family have been seen to have as many
as five hundred eggs drying at one time. The crocodiles
always deposit their eggs on the sand ; and seek the par-
tial concealment afforded by some overhanging branch, or
cave, or hole in the sand, or a very retired situation. It is
not known what number of eggs are deposited at a time,

e 2

HISTORY OF MADAGASCAR.

or in a season, by one animal ; the natives say, " many,
very many :" between fifty and sixty have been found in
one animal. They begin to lay their eggs in August,
when the summer is coming on ; hence it appears, that rain,
and the consequent obscuration of the sun's rays, do not
destroy the vitality of the egg.

The crocodiles are known to be afraid of noise, or any
disturbance of the water ; they flee into their recesses at the
sound of thunder, and agitation of wind. Hence the natives
are but rarely attacked by them, as they beat the water
with long poles, and make a great noise. By using such
means of deterring the crocodiles, they generally swim their
herds of bullocks over the river in safety ; and sometimes
after one has disappeared, he is recovered by the terrific
animals releasing him before any material injury is done.
Yet, when pressed by hunger, the crocodiles become more
audacious, and are said to approach near enough to be seen
by persons fording a river, when they are only kept off
by the travellers beating the water with spears on each
side as they pass, at the same time shouting and hallooing
with all their might.

That these means are not always sufficient, is clearly
shown by the following account, given by Mr. Hastie, of
the passage of a number of cattle over the Betsiboka
river, in 1824."

" A company of soldiers were sent across the river,
with orders to fire blank cartridge, to prevent the cro-
codiles attacking the bullocks, and a similar fire was kept
up on the side from whence they embarked. The endea-
vours of the parties thus employed, though unremitting,
did not, however, prevent these bold animals, with which
the river abounds, from seizing, and regaling themselves
on, the cattle: some herds suffered a loss of three, some

HISTORY OF MADAGASCAR.

of five, and some of more than ten. Putting out of considera-
tion the loss thus sustained, it certainly was an interesting
sight to behold a beast carried down by the alligators,
speedily torn to pieces by the hungry animals, some of
whom were soon seen near the surface of the water,
toeing up portions of their prey into the air, previous to
consuming it ; while the frequency of this occurrence,
under such circumstances, and in the presence of an almost
constant firing, produced an effect at once surprising and
strange. 1 have often seen the alligators bring their prey
to the bank, and feed; but I have not any reason to
believe that they are incapable of feeding under water.
When a bullock was seized, thirty or forty crocodiles were
sometimes seen about it, but I did not notice any instance
of one attempting to take a piece from another. I remained
at the river until noon, and got seven that had crept
up far on the land, after having satisfied themselves
with beef. Some of these were about sixteen feet in
length, and a boy who accompanied me, shot one that
measured twenty-three feet ; he found it to be a female,
and on opening the stomach, found it almost filled with
beef."

It is generally believed by the natives of Madagascar,
that the crocodile never, except to avenge an injury,
destroys innocent persons ; and the fact of any one's being
destroyed by a crocodile, makes the people shake their
heads with horror at the unknown guilt of the person
destroyed. Attaching the popular ideas of supremacy and
equity to the andrian-andrano, king of the waters, orators
who flatter the sovereign are accustomed to say, " A croco-
dile in the water art thou, not preying on the upright, but
surely destroying the guilty." Women, however, have been
known to enter the water, and combat the king of the flood

HISTORY OF MADAGASCAR.

in his own element, where they have succeeded in destroy-
ing him.

Mr. Freeman has supplied a translation of the following
amusing native fable of a serpent, a young crocodile, and
a dog: in which, among other things, the origin of the
crocodile's hostility to the dog is attempted to be shown.

A serpent and a young crocodile dwelt in the same part
of the country. The serpent fixed itself in a tree by the
water -side; and, underneath the same tree, the young
crocodile watched for prey. After a time a dog came to
drink ; the crocodile pursued him ; down came the serpent,
to stop the crocodile. "What have you to do with me?" said
the crocodile. — " Why, you are seeking to eat every body
that passes this way," replied the serpent — " Be quiet,"
said the crocodile, " lest I give you a blow with my tail,
and cut you in two." — "And pray what are you?" asked the
serpent : " I suppose you are thinking that because I have
neither hands nor feet, I can do nothing; but, perhaps, you
have not looked at my tail, how sharp it is." — " Cease your
noise," replied the crocodile, M or I'll just break you in
two." The serpent then becoming excessively angry, struck
the crocodile with his tail, and wounded his loins so as
nearly to break his body : all the fish were astonished, and,
addressing the crocodile, said, " How is this, you that
can conquer people and cattle, however large, and any-
thing else ?" The crocodile, ashamed, dived out of sight,
while the serpent resumed his place on the tree. The
crocodile, however, hoping to repay him, kept watching for
prey. After a time, there came a goose to the water ; the
crocodile pursued and got hold of him, when down came the
serpent to stop him as before. " Where are you going?" cried
the crocodile. — " Let that goose alone," said the serpent,
" lest I kill you." The crocodile replied contemptuously.

HISTORY OF MADAGASCAR.

and the serpent, enraged, exclaimed, " Well, this time see
if you are not the worse for it," and then he struck the cro-
codile, and wounded him on the face, and made him scream
again. So he was conquered that time, and the goose got
off : and all the fish came again, and said to the crocodile,
" How is it that you are beaten by yonder little serpent, —
you are wise and powerful, and that little fellow comes
and beats you !" Completely ashamed, again the crocodile
hid himself in the water, and began to think by what
means he might conquer this serpent upon the tree.
After thinking a long time, the crocodile determined on
boring a hole through the root of the tree ; and for a whole
week he kept on boring. Presently, a dog comes to drink ;
afterwards the goose ; also a man : but the crocodile keep-
ing at his work, the serpent exulted in having intimi-
dated his adversary, and said, " There's nothing then so
strong as I am." The crocodile heard him, and laboured
with all his might to finish boring at the root, one branch
of which alone remained to cut. The crocodile then
watched at the water-side a good while, when down came
the dog to drink ; — the crocodile pursued him ; — the ser-
pent, as before, came to oppose him, calling out, " Let
him alone there, lest you get the worst of it." — " You,"
says the crocodile, " do not fear god ; yonder dogs deceive
us, and that's the reason I pursue them ; and as to people,
I never touch them, unless they are guilty of witchcraft.
I only eat the small things, (poultry, &c.;) — so just let me
alone." When the serpent heard that, he replied, "There
is no god, for if there were, I should have had both hands
and feet; — there is no god at all. But I'll have your
carcase to-day." Then the dog and the serpent, toge-
ther, made an attack on the crocodile ; the crocodile got
weaker, and dived into the water, when all the fishes

HISTORY OF MADAGASCAR.

came and expressed their astonishment, as before, that ho
should be conquered by that little serpent. "Wait a
little," says the crocodile, " and you'll see T am not con-
quered by him. The serpent got up the tree as usual ; the
crocodile watched ; bored the hole completely — then looked
up and saw the serpent sound asleep on a branch over-
hanging the water ; then cutting what remained of the root,
the tree broke, and fell into the water, the serpent falling
with it. Then all the fishes acknowledged that the croco-
dile was superior, for he had got the serpent into the
water, and made him dive in it, and kept him under water
half an hour. The serpent, however, survived it, and
repented of what he had done : " O that I had never
opposed you; only let me go, and I'll never attack you
again." — " Ah !" says the crocodile, " but as often as I
pursued the dog, I was pursued by you ; so you must suffer
in your turn." Thus the crocodile made him heartily
repent before he let him go ; then, said the serpent, " If
ever I touch you again, may I be conquered," (may god
subdue me.) After that, the crocodile let him go. He
was glad to get off, but he had been beaten, and took
an oath not to renew the attack when the crocodile went
to look out for prey. The crocodile, however, owed the
dog a grudge because he had attacked him, and so laid
all his family under a curse to devour the dog whenever
opportunity offered. Ci Unless you do that," said he, " may
you die without posterity, for yonder dog took part with
another against me."

That is said to be the origin of the hatred between the
dog and the crocodile. — It is not probable that the latter
suffer much from the former, who are themselves frequently
devoured by the formidable enemies- Mr. Hastie mentions,
in his journal, that he was awoke one night by a most

HISTORY OF MADAGASC AR.

plaintive howl from his dog, which slept at the door of his
tent; and that, on rushing out, he was just in time to see
a crocodile dive into the adjacent stream with the dog in
his jaws.

Like the ancient Egyptians, and the inhabitants of
Sumatra, with some other parts of the East, in the present
day, the Malagasy regard the crocodile with superstitious
veneration. By the latter he is esteemed the king of the
waters, and they not only consider him as supreme in his
own element, but seem to suppose the animal has a right
to be so. To dispute it, according to their ideas, would be
to expose themselves to his vengeance, and to consequent
death. To shake a spear over a river, is regarded as chal-
lenging the lord of the waters, and exposing themselves to
his wrath the next time they had to pass that or any other
stream. To throw any kind of manure into the river,
especially that of cows, is deemed to be an unpardonable
affront ; and it is thought to be well for the unhappy man
who commits such an outrage, if he forfeit not his life for
his temerity. Hence, perhaps, it happens they seldom
attempt to destroy the crocodile, and rather avoid what-
ever they suppose likely to provoke him. They have
ody mamba, charms against the crocodile, which are some-
times thrown into the river, but generally carried about
the person.

The natives also, at times, when about to cross a river,
pronounce a solemn oath, or enter into an engagement to
acknowledge the sovereignty of the crocodile in his own
element. Monsieur de V., whose voyage to Madagascar
was published in 172*2, after speaking of an aged native who
had been occupied at the water's edge nearly half an hour
in pronouncing his oath, observes, " After this, elevating
his voice, so that he might be heard across the river, he

HISTORY OF MADAGASCAR.

addressed himself to the croeodile, urging him to do him
no injury, because he had never done him (the crocodile)
any ; and assuring him that he had never engaged in war
against any of his species ; on the contrary, that he had
always entertained the highest veneration for him ; at the
same time adding, that if he came to attack him, vengeance,
sooner or later, would follow ; and that if he devoured him,
all his relatives, and all his race, would declare war against
him. This harangue occupied a quarter of an hour, after
which he dashed fearlessly into the stream." They happen,
he adds, however, sometimes to be caught, when they are
not armed with muskets ; and then, instead of attributing
the accident to their own want of precaution, they imagine
that it arises from some failure in their mode of taking the
customary oath.#

Many anecdotes are related by the natives, illustrating
the characteristic sagacity of the dog in avoiding the jaws
of these formidable enemies. When accompanying their
masters across the streams infested by crocodiles, the dogs
are accustomed to bark and howl, while the natives shout
and halloo: and it is stated by the people, that a dog,
when about to cross a river alone, has been known to
remain near the edge of the water, at one part of the
stream, barking for a considerable time, as if urging cattle
to the water, and then running with the utmost speed to
a distant part of the stream, and there hastening with all
its might to the opposite side. The barking at the first
place is said to have attracted many crocodiles within
hearing to the spot, and thus secured for the dog a safe
passage at the part actually crossed.

Though the sea in the neighbourhood of this island
abounds with every variety of fish, they are not abundant
* Voyage dc Madagascar, par M. do V. Paris, 1722.

HISTORY OF MADAGASCAR.

in many of the lakes in the interior ; and the capital is but
ill supplied with this valuable article of food. Oysters are
numerous in some parts of the coast, and eels and crawfish
are met with in the rivers and lakes of the island; the
former are abundant, and are much esteemed by both na-
tives and foreigners. Various attempts have been made to
convey fish occasionally from Itasy, a lake in the province
of Imamo, to Tananarivo, where the worthy citizens have
enough of the epicurean in their natures to know that
good fish is good eating. The distance is not more than
eighty miles, but the badness of the roads renders all com-
munication extremely difficult. Fish, it is true, has been
conveyed to the capital ; but the time consumed in the
carriage has not improved its flavour. A Mons. Le Gros
expended considerable sums of money in endeavouring to
stock a pond in his garden near Tananarivo, from Itasy,
but failed of success. In 18*28, Radama, who was desirous
of seeing a plan for supplying Tananarivo with fish carried
into effect, afforded every possible facility to Prince Coroller,
for making the attempt on a large scale. Ponds were
accordingly formed at two intermediate stations : the first
at Antongona, about twenty-five miles from the capital ;
the second, at Ambohilehivy, about twenty miles further.
About one hundred fish were by this means brought to the
king's pond at Mahazoarivo near the capital. It is, how-
ever, feared they have not benefited by the change. As
pigs, goats, and other useful articles of food, are forbidden
at Tananarivo by the idol Rakelimalaza, it is not surprising
that the natives should desire to have, as some indemnifi-
cation, the delicious fish of Itasy. Besides the attempts
above referred to, Monsieur M-Swinney had been em-
ployed some time previously in endeavouring to carry fish
from the lake at Tamatave to Tananarivo. He, however,

HISTORY OF MADAGASCAR,

fell a victim to the Malagasy fever, and died at the
capital.

Among the reptiles of the island are lizards, scorpions,
centipedes, and several kinds of spiders, called hala.
Serpents abound in the woods, and other places in which
this reptile is usually found; and though few, if any of
them, are venomous, some are large, probably of the boa
constrictor kind, and have been known to destroy wild
cattle.

The serpents, as well as the hawks and other birds, feed
on the crocodile's eggs, which are exceedingly numerous ;
and the ravages which these commit among the eggs, as
well as the diminution of number occasioned by the croco-
diles themselves, who, as already stated, devour, with a
voracity unusual even amongst the lowest orders of animal
creation, their own young, prevent their becoming so numer-
ous as to destroy almost every other living creature in the
vicinity of the regions to which they resort. Among the
several varieties of lizards which prevail in the island, the
chameleon is found; and the insect tribes of Madagascar
comprehend the valuable silkworm and the brilliant firefly.

In a general description of the island of Madagascar, it
would have been improper to have omitted altogether its
natural history ; but our means have been such as to allow
us only to notice, with great brevity, some of the most pro-
minent and general or useful objects in its several depart-
ments.

HISTORY OF MADAGASCAR.

CHAR III.

Provinces of Madagascar : their number, designations, import of tlic names
of the twenty-two provinces of the island ; their boundaries, extent, and
peculiarities— Early French settlements in Madagascar — Isle of St. Mary's
— Character and history of its former inhabitants — The suppression of
piracy carried on from the island — Foule Point — Port and town of Tama-
tave — The importance of the commerce of the island — The country of
the Betanimena— Culture of the mulberry; introduction of silkworms —
Brigands ; nature of their retreats in the forests and caverns of the
interior — Peculiar insalubrity of the southern coast — Fertility and scenery
of the celebrated vale of Ambolo — Fort Dauphin — Country in the neigh-
bourhood of St. Augustine bay — Extent and peculiarities of the chief
subdivisions — The Betsileo country — Provinces of the Sakalavas — The
lake (mania — Barbarity ot the inhabitant* of Ambongo — The lake Anosy
— Natural beauty of the province of Ankay; superstition of its inhabit-
ants— The river Mangoro.

Madagascar contains twenty-two chief or larger provinces.
Rochon has given some account of twenty-eight, as existing
in his time. It is probable that in some instances the minor
divisions of a province, or even some of the principal towns,
may have been reckoned as distinct and independent
provinces. Most of the provinces have three or four prin-
cipal divisions or districts, and these again have numerous
subdivisions ; as, for example, Ankova includes Imerina,
Imamo, and Vonizongo, and each of these has its numerous
smaller divisions. In other instances the natural division
into north and south, which obtains both in the Betsileo
and Sakalava countries, may have given the appearance of

HISTORY OF MADAGASCAR.

a greater number of independent provinces than actually
existed,

The following are the provinces into which Madagascar
is at present divided.

1. Vohimarina,

2. Maroa,

3. Ivongo,

4. Mahavelona,

5. Tamatave,

6. Betanimena,

7. Anteva,

8. Matitanana,

9. Vangaidrano,

10. Anosy,

11. Androy,

12. Isienimbalala,

13. Ibara,

14. Betsileo,

15. Menabe,

16. Ambongo,

17. Iboina,

18. Antsianaka,

19. Ankay,

20. Ankova,

21. Mahafaly,

22. Fiarenana.

Having given a general description of the whole island,
it will not, perhaps, be deemed wholly incompatible with
the avowed design of the present work, which relates
principally to the interior of Madagascar, to offer a brief
sketch of its several provinces. Some of the circumstances
introduced, in reference to a few of the provinces, are
derived from the accounts of those who have previously
written on Madagascar ; the others are stated as the
result of information which the Missionaries themselves
obtained from various quarters in the island ; and the whole
may be regarded as presenting, if not a perfect exhibition
of the existing state of the island, yet, certainly, such a
view of it as is considered correct by the best informed
natives at the Capital : it is what Madagascar is at Tana-
narive believed to be, and such as eye-witnesses for the most
part have described it.

HISTORY OF MADAGASCAR.

Vohimarina^ the first, is the most northern province of
the island ; it is but thinly populated, and the soil, for the
most part, is unproductive. The district is mountainous,
and incapable of extensive cultivation. Iangogoro, one of
the highest mountains in Madagascar, is situated in this
province. It is sometimes called Vigarora. Its summit
commands an extremely diversified and extensive pros-
pect. There are here four principal ports : viz., Diegosoray
(which the natives usually call Mahazeba ;) Port Luquey,
or Lucas; Andravena, and Vohimarina, or, as frequently
spelt, Vohimaro.

South of Vohimarina, and having Antsianaka to its
west, is the province of Maroa, the second in the list
already given. The general face of the country is fertile,
abounding also in hills and forests. Its population, though
it cannot be regarded as numerous, is far greater than that
of the province last described. Some of its vegetable pro-
ductions are remarkably fine ; particularly the akondro,
or banana, which grows here to an extraordinary height.
Maroa readily submitted to Radama in his northern expe-
dition of 1823.

The most important circumstance, in connexion with the
history of this province, relates to the French settlement at
the bay of Antongil, which is situated here, in lat. 15° 25' S.
The bay is about fourteen leagues long, from north to
south, and eight broad between Cape Bellones and point
Baldrick. The small islet Marotte lies about one mile
from the shore. The common anchorage is to the north
of Marotte, a musket-shot distance. The river bears
n.n.w. from the Marotte. The anchorage off this river
is called Port Choiseul.

* "Vohitra," villages, and "marina" level or just; i.e. the fiat or equit-
able country; or " Vohimaro," many villages.

HISTORY OF MADAGASCAR.

The province of Ivong, the third, lies to the south of
Maroa, and is separated from Mahavelona by the river
Manangoro, which rises in a lake to the west of Antsianaka.
There is also in this province another considerable river,
called Penimbala, and a port called Tahotaingia, or, as
sometimes marked in maps, Teinteigne. It is generally
pronounced by captains and traders at Mauritius, Tang-tang.
The general appearance of the country resembles that of
Maroa, being hilly, woody, and fertile. Cattle and consider-
able quantities of rice are exported from this province for
the markets of Bourbon and Mauritius.

The Isle of St. Mary, which occupies so prominent a
place in the history of Madagascar, lies off this province,
at the distance of two or three leagues, and is about forty
miles n.n.e. from Foule Point. The inhabitants call them-
selves Zafy-Ibrahim, i. e. descendants of Abraham, and their
island, Nosy-Ibrahim, Island of Abraham, The natives of
the province do not generally designate themselves by this
title; and it is not improbable that the name originated
with some of the pirates, who were all Europeans, and who
made their settlement in the Isle of St. Mary, and after-
wards intermarrying with the natives, assumed the title as
one of honour — one of the most innocent, perhaps, of their
piratical acts.

The Isle of St. Mary's is represented as exceedingly
fertile, and extends, in a north-easterly direction, from
J 7° 6' to 16° 37'. On the west side is a bay, having an
islet called Quail's Island, at its entrance. Here small
vessels may obtain shelter. The place is far from being
salubrious. The French, who from time to time sent
recruits to replace the troops who died in their establish-
ment there, gave to the island the designation of "The Grave
of the French." To this melancholy picture of the spot

HISTORY OF MADAGASCAR.

should perhaps be appended the redeeming consideration,
so happily, so philanthropically suggested by the " philo-
sophic" Rochon : — " The greatest care was taken, it is true,
to send no persons thither to settle, except such as could
occasion little hurt to society if they perished."

From the time that Vasco de Gama in 1498 opened a
passage to India by the Cape of Good Hope, numerous
pirates infested those seas. They became, at length, so
formidable by the success of their nefarious transactions, as
to render a general effort, by the European powers inte-
rested in the Indian trade, indispensably necessary for their
suppression. In the prospect of their being thus cut
off from their usual resources, they formed an establish-
ment in the Isle of St. Mary about the year 1724, and
gained, by their assiduous attentions, and valuable impor-
tations, the good-will and friendship of the natives, who
were ignorant of the iniquitous means by which the trea-
sures brought to their island were obtained. They were,
however, so • vigorously pursued, even to their places of
most secure retreat, by vessels from Europe, that their
system was annihilated, and their ships burnt. After this
they appear to have settled in different parts of the northern
coast of Madagascar, wherever an eligible opening was
presented, and connected themselves, there is ever)
reason to believe, with the traffic in slaves, the greatest
scourge ever known to the islanders, equallv degrading to
the inhuman trader and his hapless victims.

The next province, Mahaveloua* is the fourth, which is
.separated from Ivongo by the Manangoro. The soil is
fertile, and the country is woody, and, to some extent,
brought under cultivation. It is, however, stated by the

* Signifying " causing to live,'' or M productive."
I. F

HISTORY OF MADAGASCAR.

natives, that the plantations are frequently destroyed by
irruptions of herds of wild hogs from the adjoining forests.
Abundance of game may be found in this district : excel-
lent oysters are plentiful on its shores, at the head of the
bay of Antongil, and especially in the bay of Ifenoarivo.
The principal trading ports in this province are, Maro-
pototra, or Foule Pointe, and Ifenoarivo. The latter is
the most valuable, and is usually called by traders from
the Isle of France, Feneriffe. It is well situated for
the purposes of traffic, having the advantage of water-
carriage from a considerable distance in the interior. By
this means, rice, yams, and other vegetables are conveyed
to the coast with greater despatch and facility, and at a less
expense, than in most other ports.

Foule Pointe, called also Marofototra (names of the
same signification — the former, French, the latter, Mala-
gasy,) is important for trade on its own account, and is a
desirable station for traders, on account also of its conti-
guity to Tamatave, Ifenoarivo, Antongil bay, and St. Mary's.
The tv/o principal rivers in Mahavelona are, Ony-be, and
Ifontsy, which divides it from Tamatave.

The province of Mahavalona is considered as highly
insalubrious. Many of the troops sent to Foule Point by
Radama, in 1823, were seized with fever, and the forces of
the sovereign so reduced by its prevalence, that not long
afterwards Itasy, a native chieftain, raised the standard of
rebellion. He was, however, taken prisoner in 1827, and
conducted to the capital, Tananarivo, where he still remains
under guard.

A number of Arabs, as well as French traders from
Mauritius and Bourbon, have settlements in this part of
the country. The Arabs have, in fact, established them-
selves along the whole eastern coast of Madagascar,

HISTORY OF MADAGASCAR-

Tamatave, the fifth, is the next province, and lies to the
south of Mahavelona. Its principal town or port on the
coast, takes the name of the district itself, which Europeans
call Tamatave, or Tamatavy, hut by the natives it is uni-
versally called Taomasina.

The port of Tamatave is one of the finest on the eastern
coast of the island.* The adjoining reefs are extensive,
and the swell and surf heavy and appalling, but they
are considered dangerous only to vessels entering or
leaving when the wind blows strong from the north-east.
Tamatave is a small and irregularly-built village, situated
on a low point of land, with an anchorage in about nine
fathoms water within the coral reef. Its latitude is 18° 12"
south. There are about two hundred houses in the
village, and from eight hundred to a thousand inhabitants.
The habitations of the natives are of very inferior construc-
tion ; those belonging to European and Creole traders are
better ; and a few are comfortable and substantial. The
Hovas erected a battery at the northern extremity of the
village : being, however, merely an enclosure formed of strong-
poles, and containing three or four native houses belonging
to the government, together with with a powder-magazine
and several smaller tenements, the whole was destroyed
by the French in their attack on the island, in 1829.
Another battery, built of coral, has been subsequently
erected near the spot, and planted with a few pieces of
cannon.

The materials employed in the construction of the houses
in Tamatave are the ravin-ala, or traveller's-tree, the
rofia, and bamboo; the roofs are composed of the leaves
of the traveller's-tree, which soon decay. The houses

* It might be more strictly correct to speak of the roads of Tamatave,
rather than to call it a port

r 2

HISTORY OF MADAGASCAR.

consist of but one room, though this is sometimes divided
by a fragile partition of matting. The floor is of flattened
bamboos fastened to poles, which are raised in order to
avoid the dampness, that would otherwise be equally
unpleasant and injurious.

The principal exports from Tamatave consist in rice,
poultry, bullocks, and rofia cloth; and several vessels are
employed in the trade between this port and Mauritius.
Some also visit it from Bourbon, for the same purposes.
The neighbourhood is extremely damp and swampy ; and,
as may be supposed, the village and its vicinity are at
all times far from being salubrious ; but the most unhealthy
period is from the middle of November to the beginning of
March. The freshness and luxuriance of the verdure give
so delightful an appearance to the scenery, that a stranger
can scarcely regard it as the seat of disease ; but a few days'
residence makes him sensible of the constant exhalations
from the marshes, which are so productive of the justly
dreaded fever of the coast.

The country is woody and marshy. A considerable
quantity of rice is cultivated here, called the tavy, which
is grown, not on the low ground, where it may be
constantly covered with water, but on high ground, fre-
quently the side of a hill. The culture of the rice is
extremely simple. The trees are cut down, and, after
burning the stumps, the rice-seed is planted in the spot,
covered with the ashes, and with but little subsequent care
the crop is generally abundant.

In the interior of this province is the fine lake of Nosive,
one of the most extensive in the island. This lake is from
twenty to twenty-five miles in length. It contains several
small islands, some of which are inhabited. It forms part
of the series of lakes already noticed, and which are known

HISTORY OF MADAGASCAR.

(59

to reach upwards of two hundred miles on the eastern coast
of Madagascar.

Eight or nine miles from Tamatave, is the village of
Anjolokefa, occasionally called Hivondrona, (and in some
maps marked Ivondro,) though Hivondrona is more pro-
perly the name of the river only, which proceeding from
the interior of the country, falls into the sea at the
distance of about two hundred yards from the village.
Anjolokefa was the residence of the enterprising chieftain
Fisatra, otherwise called Fische, or Fish. He held in sub-
jection to himself all the inhabitants of the Betanimena,
Tamatave, and Mahavelona provinces. This village was
at that time the principal place on the coast. His very
name was a terror even through the province of Ankay,
(west of Betanimena,) the eastern part of which he con-
quered. He was at length murdered by a party from the
interior, who contemplated in his death the ruin also of his
brother and ally, John Rene, of Tamatave.* In this they
failed : John Rene lived to inflict terrible vengeance on the
murderers of his relative- A son of Fisatra, named Berora,
intended to succeed to his father's possessions, was placed
for some time under the care of the Rev. D. Jones, on the
commencement of the missionary efforts of the latter at
Tamatave, but was shortly afterwards taken from the island,
and conveyed to Paris for education, where he lately died.
What political views the French government may have had
in this measure, remain yet to be developed in the future
connexions France may form with Madagascar.

To the west of Hivondrona is a fine cataract called
Ifito; inferior, however, to some in the Betanimena country;

* Rene was chieftain of Tamatave ; Radama formed with him the alliance
of brotherhood, agreeably to the custom of the country, called Fatidra, and
described in Chapter VII. of the present volume.

HISTORY OF MADAGASCAR.

and in the division called Ivoloina, there are two immense
caverns.

Betanimena, the sixth, is the province adjoining Tama-
tave to the south, separated from it by Tany-fotsy, and
stretching about thirty-five leagues along the coast. The
name of the province signifies " much red earth," and, no
doubt was given from the reddish ferruginous appearance
of the soil. There are several extensive lakes in this
district, and two cataracts, Tahaviara, and Iandrianahomby,
deserving the notice of travellers. The country is flat
near the sea, hilly in the interior, and mountainous towards
the north. It is in many parts marshy, and covered with
thickets and forests. The soil for some distance from the
coast is sandy ; but for the most part productive, from the
abundance of decomposed vegetable matter which it con-
tains. The population is numerous. At Ambohibohazo,
the capital of the province, the soil is rich, and the
scenery diversified and beautiful.

In the neighbourhood of Ambohibohazo, Mr. Hastie
selected a spot of ground for a plantation of mulberries.
They succeed well, and might be cultivated to an inde-
finite extent for silkworms. Some good silk has already
been produced in Madagascar ; and this valuable commo-
dity may hereafter become an article of great importance
to the island. Mr. Hastie intended to form a sugar
plantation in the same neighbourhood, for which the
soil appeared well adapted. Labour being extremely cheap,
there was every prospect that the establishment would
have succeeded. But his lamented decease, and subse-
quently that of Radama, have suspended every plan of
the kind then in contemplation, and have shewn, most
distinctly, the extent and beneficial influence each exerted
over the people, while they exhibit in an affecting light

HISTORY OF MADAGASCAR.

the degree to which a single individual may promote,
or his removal retard, the improvement of a nation.
There is abundance of grazing-land in the same part of the
province ; and numerous herds of cattle, belonging to the
sovereign, and to the traders on the coast, are usually taken
there for some time previously to their exportation. It is
also from this part of the country that " maromita," usually
called by Europeans " marmittes," (coolies or bearers,)
are generally obtained, for conveying travellers and their
luggage, or merchandise, from the coast to the capital, or
other parts of the interior.

This district has also been famous for its jiolahy, or
brigands. They have concealed themselves in the recesses
of its almost impenetrable forests and thickets, or extensive
and generally unknown caverns ; whence suddenly rushing
forth on passengers and bearers of burdens, they have
committed with impunity extensive depredations, not un-
frequently adding murder to their robberies.

Vatomandry is a small port in this province, but has
scarcely any trade. At Tany-fotsy an important junction
between two extensive lakes was commenced by Radama,
in order to facilitate communications with the interior by
means of water-carriage.

Anteva, the seventh province, lies to the south of Beta-
nimena, which it resembles in general appearance, though
it is rather more hilly. Rice is grown in this province in
great abundance, and quantities of beef are salted here for
exportation, though the inhabitants are extremely poor.

The great cause of the poverty of this part of the island,
is, the love of ardent spirits prevalent among the people.
After toiling to obtain a crop of rice, the natives will some-
times sell the whole for a small quantity of arrack, imported
by traders from Mauritius and Bourbon. With the delete-

HISTORY OF MADAGASCAR.

rious drug thus heartlessly given in return for the produce
of their labour, the natives soon become intoxicated, in
which humiliating state they continue so long as the arrack
lasts: for this short-lived indulgence, they sink into a
state of the most abject penury and misery, and then force
themselves and their families to subsist the greater part of
the year on roots, &c. found in the woods and swamps.
Their chief means of subsistence is the via, a species of
arum, the root of which is tuberous or cylindrical, and fre-
quently from ten to twelve inches in diameter. It is dressed
by baking for about twelve hours in an oven of heated
stones under ground, after the manner of the South Sea
islanders. In this state it will keep good for three or four
days, but is cut into small pieces and dried in the sun,
when intended to be kept for a longer period.

In payment for the carriage of goods into the interior,
or for their produce, the intoxicating draught is the usual
equivalent : to diminish, and if possible prevent, the
wretchedness thus induced, Radama imposed a heavy duty
on the importation of ardent spirits. Some check on such
an improvident and destructive infatuation in the one
party, and of relentless avarice in the other, was required ;
but there is great reason to fear that the baneful habit is
too deeply fixed among the unthinking natives of this part
of the coast, to be very easily extirpated ; but the attempt
of Radama to diminish the evil, is only one among many
instances of the soundness of his judgment and the bene-
ficial tendency of his measures. There are three important
ports in this province : Manoro, Mahela, and Mananjary.
A considerable trade is carried on at these places, especially
at Mananjary, by French settlers.

The eighth, the province of Matitanana, lies south of
Anteva, and has for a length of time been the principal

HISTORY OF MADAGASCAR.

settlement of the Arabs, on the east coast of Mada-
gascar.*

Matitanana is also famous for a class of persons called by
some writers Ombiasses, but more correctly Mpiasa, which
signifies " workers." They appear to resemble the Mpi-
sikidy, Mpanandro, and Mpanao-ody of the interior, whose
profession is to work the sikidy, or divination, to calculate
days, foretell fortunes, as well as to prepare medicines and
charms. It has been conjectured that most of the supersti-
tions in the island have had their origin in this province.

Madagascar is the land of ody, or charms, and in this
district they triumph in all their melancholy glory.

The country in general is flat, but fertile ; rice, sugar-
cane, and cattle abound.

Uangaidrano, the ninth, or as sometimes called, Taisaka,
joins the south of Matitanana. Here very little advance-
ment has yet been made, or even attempted in civilization,
yet the population is considerable.

The Manabatra with seven mouths, and the Mantangy
with four, are the two principal rivers in this province.^ The
Malagasy fever, which prevails more or less along the whole
coast of the island, is very general, and to strangers often
fatal, on the coast of this province. The country is flat and
marshy. There are also extensive and almost impervious
forests, where vegetation is rank, and the free circulation of
the air intercepted by thick underwood. The productions
are much the same as in the provinces already described,
though little is attempted by the natives beyond the cultiva-
tion of a supply adequate to their immediate wants.

* The doctrines and precepts of Mahomet have obtained some influence
here. The Arabic writing is also used, and paper of a very coarse quality
is said to be manufactured.

t Marked in the map, accompanying Rochon s work, Mananghera, stud
Manartengha.

HISTORY OF MADAGASCAR.

Anosy, the tenth, is south of Vangaidrano, and on some
accounts is one of the most important provinces, in the
history of Madagascar. It has been the site of the most
extensive French establishments ; and the principal efforts of
the Catholic missionaries in Madagascar have been put
forth here. In Anosy also is situated the most fertile and
beautiful vale in the island, the vale of Ambolo. The
country is populous, and the soil extremely fertile. Rice
and manioc, sugarcane and coffee, are abundant. Its
extensive marshes render it, however, like the greater
part of the lower portions of the island, extremely insa-
lubrious.

There are in this province several rivers, and in the
northern part of Anosy is the bay of St. Lucia, called by
the natives Mangafiafy. Ten leagues south of St. Lucia,
is the peninsula in which Fort Dauphin stands ; the ear-
liest French settlement in the island. The peninsula is
called Taolanara, or, as sometimes written, Tholangari.
Fort Dauphin is in lat. 25° 5' S. and long. 46" 35' E.

The shores are often bold and steep ; and the cliffs ap-
pear composed of strata of limestone, of varied thicknesses.
Rock-salt and saltpetre are found in this province. In fact,
next to the Betsileo country, of which we shall have occasion
to speak presently, Anosy may be considered the finest
province in the island — the most beautiful and the most
productive. Of the rich vale of Ambolo, mention has
been already made. In this charming valley, not only the
usual produce of the island, but cloves and other spices,
with citrons of various kinds, may be obtained. Hot
springs, reported to possess valuable medicinal qualities,
are also found there. It was, perhaps, from this fertile
spot, that Monsieur de Modave drew materials for his
too nattering memoirs of the island of Madagascar.

HISTORY OF MADAGASCAR.

The next province is the eleventh, Androy, separated by
the river Mahafaly from Anosy. Of this and the adjoin-
ing provinces, (twenty-first and twenty-second,) Mahafaly
and Fiarenana, there is, perhaps, little to be said. Scarcely
any advancement has been made in the civilization of their
inhabitants, excepting in this one important circumstance,
that the chiefs of the two latter provinces, in voluntarily sub-
mitting to Radama, agreed to his propositions on the
subject of the suppression of the slave-trade in Mada-
gascar. The country is woody, and the population small.
Wild cattle abound. Salt and nitre are found in Maha-
faly and Fiarenana. Tolia Bay and St. Augustine Bay
are situated in the province of Fiarenana; it is to this
part of the country that Drury's notice of Madagascar
principally refers ; and there also the Winterton was lost
in August 1792.* The ship was wrecked in the district
of the bay of St. Augustine, about fifteen or twenty miles
from Tolia. The soil in the neighbourhood of Tolia is
sandy and unproductive, but improving towards the bay of
St. Augustine.

Before proceeding to the next great division of the
western coast, it may be proper to remark, that there are
two inland provinces lying between Mahafaly and Fiare-
nana on the west, and Anosy on the east : — the twelfth, called
Tsienimbalala ; and the thirteenth, Ibara; the former to the
south, bordering on Androy; the latter to the north,
joining the Betsileo country. Of these, however, little
more can be said than respecting the western provinces,
to which they are contiguous. They have never been
carefully explored, either by natives or foreigners. It is
known that they are but thinly peopled. The country is

* Loss of the Winterton pp. 13—18.

HISTORY OF MADAGASCAR.

woody, and a very inconsiderable portion of it is brought
under cultivation. The inhabitants have obtained from
the adjoining maritime provinces, supplies of arms and
ammunition, and their acknowledgment of the sovereignty
of the Hovas appears the effect of compulsion rather
than of cordiality. They possess great numbers of cattle,
which they dispose of on the coast, in exchange for ammu-
nition and arms.

Immediately to the north of Ibara, is the province of
Betsileo — the fourteenth. The name signifies "much, not
conquered,,' or "invincible," and denotes the independent
and unconquered spirit of the inhabitants. It is separated
from Ankova by a range of mountains called Ankaratra,
and from Anteva by an extensive waste or desert. Bet-
sileo is a fine grazing country. The cattle are exceedingly
numerous, and among them some are found, called " omby
bory," cattle without horns. The account given by some
authors, of cattle in Madagascar having horns appended
to the forehead by means of a small portion of skin, appears
fabulous. Such cattle are not noiv known in the island,
and it is believed never were.

The inhabitants of the Betsileo province, though not
equally advanced in civilization with the people of Ankova,
who have had more intercourse with Europeans, are
remarkable for the mildness of their dispositions, and the
simplicity of their manners. Living in an inland province,
and having had scarcely any communication with strangers
visiting the island or settling on the coast, they naturally
express the utmost surprise at the appearance, manners,
and pursuits of the foreigners, when they meet with any of
these, to them, singular and extraordinary beings.

Generally speaking, the Betsileo lead an inactive life.
The principal domestic occupation of the people consists

HISTORY OF MADAGASCAR.

in the manufacture of the native lamba, or long robe,
from a kind of coarse silk, the produce of the country,
which they render extremely heavy by ornamenting with
an immense quantity of small leaden beads fastened to the
silk in rows either straight or curved. They purchase the
metal on the coast, or in the interior, and make the beads
themselves. Their land is fertile, and, with but trifling
labour, yields an ample supply for the few wants with
which they are familiar ; and to exert themselves beyond
this, in their present grade of civilization, would be
contrary to the known laws and history of the human
species.

Betsileo is divided into six districts, — three in the north,
and an equal number in the south. The former, which
are situated nearly in the centre of the island, are Andra-
say, or Vakinankaratra, Fisakanana, and Vohidrahomby.
To the south, are Lalongina, Sandrabe, and Tsianipariha.
The scenery of the country is not unfrequently rich and
varied, occasionally it is picturesque, and sometimes bold
and majestic; and the indications of former volcanic action
are distinct and numerous.

To the west of Betsileo, and proceeding northward on
the sea-coast, is the fifteenth province, the large country of
Menabe^ otherwise designated the South Sakalava country.
This district has from time immemorial been renowned for
the brave and warlike chieftains by whom its inhabitants
have been governed.

The prevalence of wars in former times, among the
Sakalavas, together with the fatal effects of the fever
abounding in this district, may sufficiently account for the
fact, that, though the aggregate population is considerable,
it is yet small compared with the amount the Sakalava
country is capable of maintaining. The cultivated part

HISTORY OF MADAGASCAR.

of the province is large ; other portions yet remain desert.
Various esculent roots are cultivated by the Sakalavas,
especially arrow-root. The tamarind is abundant, and seve-
ral fruits but little known in the island. Cattle, though still
abundant, are not so numerous as formerly, owing chiefly
to the destructive and predatory nature of their wars.

On the borders of this province, between Menabe and
Ankova, is a large tract of country occupied by herds of
cattle in the wild state ; many of them are distinguished
from other cattle in Madagascar, by not having the
" tafona," or hump on the back. To hunt these animals,
was a favourite amusement of Radama. The spot usually
chosen for the feat, is called Manerinerina.

The fine and extensive vale of Belisa is situated in this
province, running in a direction north and south. It is
watered by three considerable rivers, the Imania, the
Manambolo, and the Manambala. There is also an
extensive lake of the same name as the first river men-
tioned, Imania, famed for having near its centre a beau-
tiful and picturesque islet called Anosisaka. This is
adorned with a remarkably fine natural grove, rendering it
an attractive object, in the scenery of which it is so distin-
guished an ornament.

North of the Sakalava country is, sixteenth, Amhongo
having a considerable extent of sea-coast, and being for
the most part, a level and woody district. The country
resembles that of the Sakalavas, but its inhabitants are less
civilized; they may, perhaps, be termed barbarous. In
more than one instance, cruelty has been shown to foreign-
ers who have been unfortunately shipwrecked on this
part of the coast. A case of this kind occurred a few years
ago, when a Portuguese whaler being cast on this part
of the island, the crew were all murdered.

HISTORY OF MADAGASCAR.

Ambongo is the only province in Madagascar, whose
inhabitants did not, more or less, acknowledge the sove-
reignty of Radama, and whom he had not attempted to
reduce to subjection.

The principal rivers here are, the Manambaho, the
Sambaho, and Iantsanira, which last falls into the sea
south of Cape St. Andrew. The province is separated
from Iboina by the river Mangaray.

Seventeenth, Iboina, lies north of Ambongo. This pro-
vince is also level and woody. It abounds in marshes,
and hence also in fevers. The population is considerable,
and the soil is generally productive. Cattle is very
numerous. The chief river here is the Betsiboka, which
runs into the sea near Mojanga. Near this is the small
village of Bombitoka. This name seems to be a corrup-
tion of the Malagasy Vohim-he toaka, i. e. " the village
of much spirituous liquor." The Arabs have long been
accustomed to visit this place, and many of them reside
here for the purposes of trade ; they are called by the
Malagasy, Talaotra.

To the east of Iboina lies Vohimarina, which has been
already described. The Betsileo country has been spoken
of as south of Ankova; that to the north, the eighteenth
province, is called Antsianaka* This is an extensive
tract of country, abounding with large herds of cattle.
Sheep, as well as bullocks, are numerous here. Rice is
not largely cultivated, but the finest cotton in the island
is produced in this province, and its cultivation might be
greatly increased, as the soil appears well adapted to its
growth. Great quantities are sold in the markets in the
raw state, and afterwards manufactured by the natives into

* Literally the name signifies, " The province of not children," i. e.
not subject to others — independent.

HISTORY OF MADAGASCAR.

dresses. Their process is slow and tedious, but the cloth
manufactured is firm and durable. ' The country, though
large, is not populous, and is also far from being healthy ;
a Malagasy fever prevails extensively. The houses are
mere huts, and generally excessively dirty. Very little has
yet been attempted for the civilization or improvement of
the inhabitants of this part of the island.

The high road toTananarivo from Mahavelona, in which
Foule Pointe is situated, lies through the province of
Antsianaka. The province is intersected by a part of the
great forest of Alamazaotra. There is also a beautiful lake
in this province, called Anosy, having an island in its centre,
and a village occupying the highest part of the island.

The province of Ankay, the nineteenth, lies to the
south of Antsianaka, and to the west of Ankova. It is
a narrow strip of the interior of the country, and is
sometimes called Antankay. Its inhabitants are called
Bezanozano ; a people of independent spirit, and formerly
among the most turbulent and anarchical in the island;
anarchical is, in fact, the signification of the name Bezano-
zano. The inhabitants are not numerous, and the villages
are small. Cattle and poultry are abundant ; rice is largely
cultivated. The people are, however, generally poor and
dirty, and much addicted to divination and idols. The
dialect spoken, like that of Antsianaka, being strongly nasal,
resembles that of the coast more than that of the adjoining
inland province of Ankova.

The scenery of many parts of Ankay is extremely beau-
tiful and picturesque. The province consists principally of
an extensive plain, situated between lofty hills, and watered
by the fine river Mangoro, which runs eastward to Anteva.
West of this river is a mountain called Ifody, covered for
the most part with a forest : it commands an extensive view

HISTORY OF MADAGASCAR.

of the country north and south. A beautiful wood resem-
bling mahogany, called mango wood, and excellent for
cabinet work, is found here, though not known to exist
elsewhere in the island. The river Mangoro, from its
direction and magnitude, would be well adapted for the
conveyance of merchandise between the coast and the inte-
rior of the island, but for its numerous and rapid falls,
which in some places may be considered cataracts ; and,
though not so large as to deserve notice as objects of curi-
osity or surprise, render the currents too impetuous for the
purposes of navigation.

The only province remaining to be noticed is Ankova.
But as this province is the country of the present rulers of
the island, the site of the capital, the seat of the govern-
ment, as well as having been the principal and almost
exclusive scene of the labours of the Protestant Mission
in the island, a more detailed account is required of this
central part of the island.

HISTORY OF MADAGASCAR.

CHAP. IV.

Province of Ankova — Meaning of the name — The chief divisions of the
province, Imerina — Its general aspect — Elevation of its mountains — Relics
of antiquity — Objects of superstitious veneration — Salubrity of Ankova
— Produce of the country — Subdivisions or clans, Voro-mahery, Imamo,
Vonizongo— Tomb of Rapeto — Peculiarities of the inhabitants of An-
kova— Account of Tananarivo, the capital of the island — Its geo-
graphical situation — Its elevation above the level of the sea — Import of
the name — Population of Tananarivo — Dwellings of the people — Con-
struction of their houses — Divisions in the capital — Public thorough-
fares— The palace — The silver house — The throne of the kingdom — Site
of the tombs of the reigning family — Antsahatsiroa, place of public
assembly — The Tarpeian rock of Tananarivo — The several places of
execution — Market — Central school and chapel — Mission buildings —
Burial-ground for strangers— Country residences of the king — State of
the public roads — Remains of ancient fortifications.

Ankova,* the country or province of the Hovas, is the
most important province in the island of Madagascar.
Its inhabitants are more numerous, industrious, ingenious,
and wealthy, than those of any other part of the country.
It is the centre of the empire, the seat of the government,
and the scene of the principal efforts hitherto made in the
country, to introduce education, European improvements,
arts and sciences, and to promote civilization. Its climate

* Ankova is a compound word, formed of Any and Hova. Any is an
adverb of place, signifying there, and a preposition signifying at. In com-
position, the final y is dropped. Hova is the name of the people. It is
sometimes spelt without the h, as Ova ; but more correctly with the h,
breathed very softly. It is changed into k, in composition, after n, gratia
euphoniee, An-kova, for Any-hova — there, at the place of the Hovas, the
country of the Hovas.

HISTORY OF MADAGASCAR.

is the most salubrious in the island, and its soil, though
to a great extent still untilled, has yet been brought under
sufficient improvement and culture, to maintain a large
population.

From its extreme want of wood, the general appearance
of Ankova is sterile, dreary, and uninteresting. The
eye is fatigued with traversing its numerous hills and
mountains in search of vegetation, as a relief from the
dulness of the unvarying scene, which a country, generally
destitute of brushwood, grove, or forest, presents. In the
rainy, which is also the warm season, vegetation is ex-
tremely rapid ; the valleys, carpeted with the loveliest
green, are then rich in luxuriant verdure, and even
the ferruginous tops of the mountains, and the rounded
summits of the thousand hills, clothed for a few months in
the year with a coarse and dwarfish grass, assume an aspect
of comparative cheerfulness. But in the dry, which is
also the cold and wintry season, the appearance of the
whole country, excepting the meadows, and a few spots
artificially irrigated, is exceedingly barren.

Ankova is divided into three chief parts or divisions;
viz. Imerina, Imamo, and Vonizongo. Imerina gave name
originally to the kingdom of Radama, and hence he has
sometimes been spoken of as prince of Imerina, chieftain
of Emerne,* king of the Hovas, &c. Imamo and Voni-
zongo, were annexed to the district of Imerina during the
reign of the father of Radama, and have ever since com-
posed the kingdom of Ankova,

In its external characteristics, the great part of Ankova
may be considered hilly, rather than mountainous. Few
of its highest mountains rise above five or six hundred

* Emirne is the usual, but certainly incorrect, orthography, employed
by French writers.

G 2

84 HISTORY OF MADAGASCAR.

feet above the level of the surrounding rice grounds. The
capital itself, Tananarivo, is situated on the summit of a
long irregular hill, about five hundred feet high. The
principal mountains in the three divisions of Ankova,
are, Angavo to the east, Ankaratra to the south, Ambo-
himiangara to the west, and Andringitra to the north,
chiefly distinguished as the scene of legendary tales, re-
counting the mighty achievements of giants, and other
monstrous beings, supposed to belong to a fabulous age.
The altars erected by former generations on the summits
of these mountains, to the memory of such extraordinary
personages, still exist, and are visited by the people as
the appropriate places for prayer and sacrifice to the
manes of the mighty dead. On the tops of some of
these mountains, are still existing the vestiges of ancient
villages.

Altars are also met with throughout the whole of
Ankova, and frequently the sites chosen for them are high
places and groves. The usual name for these is, Vazimba,
i. e. altars raised to the Vazimba, the supposed aborigines
of the central parts of the island.

Ankova, although it has few trees to improve or diversify
its appearance, excepting the wild fig, which is met with
in most of the villages, is bounded by forests to the north
and east ; the former separating the province from Antsia-
naka, and the latter from Ankay. To its being thus clear
of wood, and its consequently favouring the free circu-
lation of the air, may in part be attributed the salubrity of
Ankova, and the north of Betsileo, called Vakin-ankaratra,
for here the Malagasy fever is as much an exotic, as it is
indigenous almost every where else.

The valleys and low grounds are principally used for the
cultivation of rice : bogs and marshes, which are too swampy

HISTORY OF MADAGASCAR.

for the growth of rice, are planted with rushes ; a valuable
production to the cultivator, being in extensive demand
for thatching, making baskets, matting, hats, fuel, &c.
The higher level grounds, and the sides of the hills, where
the ascent is not so steep as to expose the soil to the
liability of being washed away in the rainy season, are
planted with manioc, swreet potatoes, gourds, sugarcane,
beans, &c.

The Ikiopa is the finest river within a great distance
of the Capital, which at unequal distances it almost sur-
rounds. It rises in the east, runs southward, bearing to the
west, where several tributary streams from the Ankaratra
range augment its waters ; continuing its course, it at length
falls into the Betsiboka, which, as already remarked, flows
into the sea on the north-west coast of Madagascar, not
far from Mananjary. This river waters the fine vale of
Betsimitatatra, which lies to the west of the capital.
The vale itself reaches from thirty to forty miles, in a
direction from north to south, varying in width from half
a mile to four miles. It is, however, impossible, merely
by specifying its length and width, to convey an accurate
idea of the form or beauty of the Betsimitatatra vale.
Its rich productions throughout its whole exent, its irregular
outline, terminated by innumerable rising grounds and
gently-sloping hills, covered with villages, or adorned with
cultivation, continually present to the traveller new and
varying scenes of tranquillity and loveliness. In the rainy
season especially, Betsimitatatra, viewed from the capital,
presents the most charming and delightful scenery. It
is extensively cultivated, and the beautiful green of the
rice plantations, in the early part of the season, is not
surpassed by the finest herbage of the European land-
scape.

HISTORY OF MADAGASCAR.

The principal lake in Ankova is Itasy, or, as called by
the natives, Itasianaka. It is situated in the division of
Imamo, and at the foot of the high mountain of Ambohimi-
angara. The principal cataract is Farahantsana, in the
division of Marovatana, and about thirty-five miles from
the capital.

The almost total absence of wood in Ankova, not only
affects the appearance of the country, but renders fuel
scarce and dear. By those who reside near the forests on
the borders of the province, fuel is easily obtained; and
considerable quantities of fagots are carried for sale to
the markets of Ankova. Slaves are also employed by
their owners in fetching wood from the forests. But among
the poor, almost the only fuel used consists of bozaka, or
long grass ; roots of grass, plucked up in the dry season ;
rice-straw with the chaff and husks ; weeds collected from
the gardens and rice-grounds, the stalk of the manioc;
refuse from the thatching,* chips of wood, and great quan-
tities of dried cow-dung.

In most of the villages there are a few trees, and from
these the privileged " head-men" obtain part of their fuel ;
but none may be sold, nor may others venture to put
sacrilegious hands on these guarded favourites of the vege-
table empire : otherwise, with such eagerness would they
be seized, that in a very short time not a twig or a stump
would remain.

Imerina consists of four smaller subdivisions ; namely,
Avaradrano, Vakinisisaona, Marovatana, and Ambodirano.

* Thatching made of reeds has an extremely rough and unsightly
appearance till dressed and clipped. This the native thatchers perform
with much dexterity ; and they, as well as the carpenters in their work,
claim all that is cut off as a perquisite of indefeasible right ; though
not unfrequently they are found to cut and clip more than is meet, and
rather for their own advantage than for the benefit of house or landlord.

HISTORY OF MADAGASCAR.

These constituted originally four distinct and independent
kingdoms, or petty states, governed by their own chief-
tains, but were united into one by Andriamasinavalona.
At his death, the whole was again divided into four parts,
as he had allotted one-fourth of his kingdom to each of his
sons, whom he nominated to their respective shares of
territory prior to his decease. By the father of Radama,
these four subdivisions were again consolidated into the
kingdom of Imerina.

These lesser subdivisions of Imerina are again subdi-
vided. Avaradrano contains, for example, L Voro-mahery ;
that is, " the powerful bird ;" meaning the eagle, or per-
haps, more properly, the vulture : *2. Tsimahafotsy ; " not
turning pale" — courageous : 3. Tsimihamboholahy ; " not
turning the back" — undaunted : 4. Maudiavato ; " treading
on stones" — firm, resolute, &c. For the sake of illustrating
the nature of this smaller subdivision, we may take the
first-mentioned, Avaradrano, especially as it also con-
tains the capital. Avaradrano is the name of a cer-
tain portion of country, a given district, and signifies,
literally, " north of the water :" the names of the sub-
divisions above-mentioned, as belonging to Avaradrano,
refer rather to clans and divisions of people, than to
place.

The divisions are extremely numerous and intricate, in-
volving not merely divisions of soil, but classifications of
people and families ; and it not unfrequently occurs that the
same is applied both to place and people, though perhaps,
as a general rule, it may be remarked, that names of villages
belong to them strictly as such, but names of districts
involve primarily the idea of clans, families, or classes of
people. Sometimes the same clan occupies a portion of
soil in different districts, and sometimes a district is desig-

HISTORY OF MADAGASCAR.

nated by the name of the principal class or clan to which
it originally belonged.*

To illustrate this view of the subject, it may be inquired
with regard to its locality, " Where is the capital situated ?"
and the reply may be, " In Voromahery." " Where is
Voromahery ?" "In Avaradrano." Here, Voromahery,
though strictly an heraldic designation and therefore belong-
ing to a clan, is yet attached to a place, as a portion of
the territory called Avaradrano. In other cases it desig-
nates necessarily the clan : for example, " Who are sum-
moned to attend such a kabary, or public assembly ?" It
may be answered, "All Voromahery;" that is, all the
people falling under that heraldic designation, whether
residing in Avaradrano or any other district. Or it might
be asked, " Who are ordered to the forest for timber for
such a service ?" and the reply may be, " All Avaradrano ;"
and in that case all the clans belonging to Avaradrano
would be intended.

These divisions and subdivisions are most tenaciously
and rigorously maintained by the people themselves, and
by the government. Proportions of public service to be
performed by the people, are most scrupulously regu-
lated by reference to these divisions, Quotas of men
to be furnished for the army, and of youth for the
schools, are fixed on by the government agreeably to the
arrangement of the people into clans; a mode of pro-
ceeding, however, frequently involving great inconvenience,
and which must, as civilization advances, ultimately fall
into desuetude. It might be adapted to the feudal state

* This custom does not appear to be peculiar to the Malagasy. In the
South Sea Islands the same designation is used for the clans or tribes and the
country which they inhabit, although primarily employed to designate the
people only.

HISTORY OF MADAGASCAR.

of Madagascar, when the island was split into innumerable
petty and independent states ; but it is unsuitable for an
empire, which requires its services rather by convenience
of localities than the prejudice of clans or families.

The capital and its suburbs, for about six miles round,
are called Voromahery, though more strictly the capital is
called " Voromahery in town," and the suburbs " Voro-
mahery in the country.''

Most of the preceding observations, though properly
belonging to Imerina, may yet be applied to Ankova
generally, since a great similarity obtains between its three
great divisions. It will, therefore, be necessary to subjoin
but a few remarks respecting Imamo and Vonizongo, and
these on points only where the two divisions differ from
Imerina.

Imamo lies to the west of Imerina, and embraces
Mandridrano, and Valala-fotsy. Abundance of iron is
found in the mountain of Ambohimiangara, one of the
highest in Ankova. It has been said that silver also exists
there ; but of this, no satisfactory evidence has yet been
given. One of the most celebrated vestiges of antiquity in
Imamo, is situated on the summit of this mountain. It
is the ancient tomb of the renowned giant Rapeto. An altar
is connected with the tomb, on which sacrifices are still
offered.

The tradition respecting these renowned personages
states, that Rapeto came from the mountain Ankaratra, and
Rasoalao from Ambohiman5a. They made immense bon-
fires, and gradually approached each other, till they met
at Antongona, where they entered into a mutual covenant,
and married. Their children consisted of one daughter and
seven sons. The sons were laudably inured to industry, and
sent to plant rice, but very impertinently took upon them-

HISTORY OF MADAGASCAR.

selves to order their sister to fetch their Sarotra, (the Mala-
gasy umbrella, a rude sort of mat-covering.) The parents
were indignant, and reproved the youths, on their return
home, for imposing so menial a task on their sister — their only
sister. They even took them by the shoulders, and denounced
anathemas on them, and solemnly charged the daughter
never to carry anything, nor plant anything, except rice —
not even the manioc, nor sweet potato ; that, if ordered to
do it, she must peremptorily refuse, and that the " boys"
must do all labour of that kind.

A clan exists to the present day in Ambodirano, calling
themselves Zanak'antitra, ie., old children, meaning made
old by toil and labour. They consider themselves the
descendants of this giant family, and their females still
adhere to the ancient interdict, never carrying nor planting
anything but the ketsa, rice-plants.

The powers of Rapeto were of the most marvellous kind.
He could, it is said, fetch anything from the farthest
extremities of the earth, and could even, at a stretch, reach
the sky. One single step of his, would be equal to the
dsitance of six days' journey by an ordinary man. When
visited by strangers, he conversed freely with them, and,
without moving from his seat, would merely stretch out his
hand, and procure abundance of fowls, sheep, and bullocks.
With the same means he would bring an ample supply of
fuel from the forest, to dress the provisions for his guests.
Wishing occasionally for a few dainties at his table, he pro-
duced the beautiful and extensive lake Itasy, which abounds
to this day with excellent fish : a village to the west of
Tarinarivo still retains his name.

On one unfortunate occasion he had a serious quarrel
with the moon, with whom he fought, but, notwithstanding
his gigantic formation and strength, he was vanquished and

HISTORY OF MADAGASCAR.

slain. He was buried on the summit of the high moun-
tain of Ambohi-miangara, near the lake Itasy. At his grave
an altar is erected, and thither the people occasionally
resort to pray and offer sacrifices.

His wife, Rasoalao, is regarded as the owner of the wild
cattle. Her grave is unknown. She is, however, prayed
to ; and, unless thus worshipped with sacrifices, the people
imagine they could neither obtain bullocks nor sheep, nor
success in any journey they might undertake.

To the south of this mountain is the large and valuable
lake Itasy, referred to in the preceding fable, into which
the Matindrano, a river flowing from the east, empties itself.
Two rivers from the south fall also into this lake ; the
Fitandambo, and the Varahina. The Lily runs out of it,
westward, and proceeds to Sakay.

The general appearance of Imamo is not inviting. It
is hilly, but with extensive pieces of level ground, and
fertile valleys. In order to secure good pasture -land for
the cattle, the inhabitants burn the grass which grows
luxuriantly on the sides of the hills. They set fire to this
about the close of the dry season ; at which season of the
year, the fires may be seen at an immense distance illu-
minating the horizon in a most splendid manner, for many
miles in extent. As soon as the rains fall, the young and
tender grass springs up, and a fine rich pasture is pro-
vided.

Vonizongo is a district renowned for having contained
an unusual number of petty chieftains and nobles. These
have generally claimed exemption from some particular
kinds of service, such as digging with the spade, fetching
wood from the forests, assisting in building houses for the
sovereign, &c. A number of these were chosen a few
years since, by Radama, to assist in cultivating some land

HISTORY OF MADAGASCAR.

at Foule Pointe, where he formed a colony; and on the
service being declined by them, as incompatible with their
dignity, Radama yielded the point, but still availed himself
of their labours, by ordering, that as carrying a spade
would be derogatory to their dignity, carrying a musket
could not, and that they must, therefore, honourably serve
with the army in his wars. The inhabitants of the district
of Vonizongo are distinguished for their attachment to
charms and idols. During the year 1828, three of the
natives of this district were put to death, for making the
ody mahery — the powerful medicine, or spell; in other
words, for being sorcerers.

Vonizongo has no extensive valleys, but numerous small
fertile spots between the hills, where large quantities of
rice are grown.

This district, like other parts of the island, consists
of numerous subdivisions: its four principal towns are,
Soavina, Fihaonana, Fiambazana, and Fiarenana. Its
highest mountain is called Angavo, i. e. the lofty.

The chief point of attraction, and the most important
object in the province of Ankova, is the capital; to an
account of which the remainder of this chapter will not be
unsuitably appropriated.

Tananarivo, the capital of Imerina, and now of Mada-
gascar, stands on the summit of a lofty, long, and irregular
hill; it commands an extensive prospect of the surround-
ing country, and of not fewer, perhaps, than a hundred
smaller towns and villages. The geographical position of
Tananarivo* is, according to the observations of Mr. Lyall,

* This is the name by which the capital is generally designated, though in
writing it, the most intelligent among the natives add the formative prefix
An — at, there : but in speaking they do not pronounce the An, which seems
to stand in a relation to the name of the capital similar to that of the

HISTORY OF MADAGASCAR.

the late British resident at the capital of the island — lat.
1 8° 56' 26" S., and 47° 57' 48" E. of Greenwich, or 45° 37' 22"
E. of Paris. The highest elevation of Tananarivo above the
adjoining vale, is about five hundred feet. Its elevation
above the level of the sea, is believed to be about seven
thousand feet. The direction of the hill is nearly north-
west and south-east. The two principal paths to its sum-
mit, wind up in an extremely irregular manner ; one from
the east to the centre of the town, and another from
the north, proceeding through the town to its southern
extremity.

The signification of the name Tananarivo is determined
by its etymology. Arivo, signifies a thousand; tanana,
means a town. The compound word will therefore signify
a thousand towns. It may be regarded as a name given in
compliment to the extensive population thus drawn together;
and, viewed as descriptive of a native's idea of a town — so
large as to comprehend a thousand towns in one. This ap-
pears to be the correct interpretation of the term. The
European, who smiles, it may be, at the childish exaggera-
tion, will yet forgive the fond vanity of the Malagasy, who
thinks as proudly of his City of a thousand towns, as ever
did the inhabitants of Palmyra or Babylon, Corinth or Piome,
in their dreams of the pomp, splendour, and durability of
their immortal cities.

The summit and the sides of the hill, on which the city
stands, are covered with buildings, especially near the top.
The houses are built on the declivities by means of artificially
levelled terraces, of twenty, thirty, or forty feet in width.

O before Tahiti, or before the largest of the Sandwich Islands. In the
geographic position of the capital, as given above, the Missionaries suppose
there is an error of one degree, and that it should be 48° 57' 48" east of
Greenwich,

HISTORY OF MADAGASCAR.

formed one above another. A principal thoroughfare, or road,
divides the town east and west ; out of which branch innu-
merable small pathways, leading between the houses, where,
however, room is scarcely left in some places for two foot-
passengers to pass ; and even that little can only be obtained
with difficulty, perhaps by means of enormous stones jutting
out of a bank, amidst hollows caused by incessant torrents of
rain, or across some mass of rock projecting over a frightful
precipice beneath. The nature of the ground on which
the city stands precludes the possibility of regularity in the
formation of the streets or the disposition of the buildings.

The principal houses in the capital are built of wood,
and are sometimes substantial and durable. The chief
entrance always faces the west. The threshold of the
door being often raised eighteen inches or two feet above
the level of the pathway, a block of stone is placed
outside the door as a step, and another inside to assist in
reaching the floor. The houses are detached, and gene-
rally surrounded by a low mud wall. The fronts of several
comparatively new houses are screened by verandas, and
a few of recent construction, belonging to the officers of
government, have boarded floors. In general, a coarse
and strong matting, spread on the earth, constitutes the
bed, table, and floor of the inhabitants.

In building a house, the Malagasy consider it essential
to commence on a day declared by Panandro to be a
lucky day. The commencement is always made at the
north-east corner, that being deemed more sacred than
any other ; they then proceed to the south-east, and thence
round by the west. The occupants of houses are usually
the owners of them. The system of renting is little prac-
tised. A few Arab traders have hired houses for shops ;
when this is the case, the purchasers of goods at such

HISTORY OF MADAGASCAR.

shops have to pay the landlord as rent, a certain amount,
according to the extent of their purchase, frequently about
say one penny in every dollar.

In nearly all the houses, a hearth or fire-place is made,
not far from the centre of the building, consisting of three,
or usually five square upright stones, fixed at suitable
distances, and used in cooking. No chimneys exist ; hence
the annoyance from the smoke is great, and, in some of
the houses whose roofs are low, it is intolerable to a Euro-
pean. Most of the natives have fires occasionally kept
in all their dwellings, though the cooking may be performed
in a detached building. The climate of Madagascar is suf-
ficiently cool, during a greater part of the year, to render
a fire an agreeable domestic companion, especially during
their evening hours.

One peculiarity in the construction of Malagasy houses
respects the roof. The pitch is generally much greater
from the wall-plate to the ridge, than the height of the
building from the ground to the lower edge of the roof.
Fifteen feet for the height of the walls, and twenty-three
for the roof, is not unusual. At the gable-ends are also
placed long poles, ornamented by rudely carved ornaments
at the extremity. The greater the rank of the owner of
the house, the longer the poles. The prerogative of
building the highest house in the capital, belongs to
the sovereign; no one dares build his house above the
king's. The European method of building with roofs of a
lower pitch, and with sloping ends, has been generally
adopted in the houses lately built, and promises to supersede
the plan of building with steep gable-ends. The chief
objection to it with a Malagasy is, that neither his father
nor his grandfather built their dwellings in that form.

The thatching of the roof, in good houses, consists of the

HISTORY OF MADAGASCAR.

herana, a rush, of which abundance is found in the neigh-
bourhood of the capital. The Malagasy mode of thatching
bears a strong resemblance to that practised by the South
Sea Islanders. The rush is folded over a slender cane, to
which it is tied down by a small reed. The cane is about
live or six feet in length, and, when filled with rushes, is
fastened to bamboo rafters placed on the principal tim-
bers. The folicz of prepared rushes are placed one over
another, at two or three inches' distance from the margin.
Roofs thus constructed look remarkably neat, and gene-
rally last from seven to ten years. The two palaces lately
erected by Radama, and one or two other houses, have
shingled roofs similar to those used in the Isle of France.

Many of the poorer houses are constructed of the
zozoro, a species of rush, formed, by means of small canes
passing through them, into a sort of mat. These, fast-
ened to a few upright poles driven into the earth, complete
the houses of great numbers of the inhabitants of Mada-
gascar. Some are also built of bamboos split and beaten
flat. These are all much colder than the wooden houses.
Three or four dollars will be sufficient to complete a
moderate -sized residence of this kind. No mud- wall
houses are built in the capital, but many in the immediate
vicinity. Some of these are coloured with different kinds
of earths, as yellow or light pink, and give a pleasing
variety to the scenery in which they appear.

The number of houses in Tananarivo has greatly in-
creased within the last few years. There has been also
an augmentation in the amount of population ; though not,
perhaps, in proportion to the increase of buildings. About
the year 1820, the number of inhabitants was computed
at from ten to twelve thousand. At present the population
is supposed to exceed twenty thousand.

HISTORY OF MADAGASCAR.

The number of houses is about six or seven thousand,
affording an average of three persons to each house. The
increase of one-third in the amount of the population
in the short space of about eight years, distinctly shews
the value of Radama's government to the country.
The increase arose in part from persons preferring to
settle at the capital rather than to remain in the country,
for the same reasons which have led to the increase
of our cities in Europe ; where, however, a denser popula-
tion on a given spot is no proof of a general augmenta-
tion in the inhabitants of the country, — the accumulation
in the one case being founded on a diminution in
another. There is, however, reason to believe that the
increase in the population of Madagascar has been very
general, more particularly in the vicinity of the capital,
where the influence of the government has been most pow-
erfully felt, and its vigilance most beneficially exercised.
The suppression of the slave traffic, and of the horrid
practice of infanticide, and the diminished sacrifice of life
from the mock trials by ordeal, during the enlightened
reign of Radama, will in no small degree account for the
increase.

The average number of inhabitants to each house ap-
pears small. It is, however, to be remarked, that the
houses consist generally of but one apartment, or that
occasionally divided by a partition made of coarse matting
and a few bamboos. Most of the inhabitants, excepting the
poorest classes, have two houses ; others three or four, or
even more, several of which are used as kitchens, or
occupied by their relations, slaves, and slave families. As
civilization has advanced at the capital, it has augmented
the desire of securing additional comforts and accommo-
dations, and hence the increased number of habitations

I. H

HISTORY OF MADAGASCAR.

beyond the average increase of inhabitants. As the security
of property became greater by an organized and firmly
established government, and as industry, under the patron-
age of that government, found its reward and encourage-
ment in a greater demand for its produce, wealth increased,
and hence also the improved appearance and the modern
style of many of the houses at the capital.

In the centre, and near the highest part of the town,
(called by the natives Tampombohitra,* crown, or top of
the town,) stands the palace, surrounded by a high pali-
sading of strong poles. Properly speaking, the enclosure
comprehending all the buildings called the palace, consists
of two parts : a division being formed within it, by means
of a palisading from east and west. The northern division
is strictly the palace, and the southern the palace-yard,
called by the natives, Anaty R5va, i. e. " within the
fence."

The northern division of the enclosure contains a
building designated Trano-vola, i. e. Silver House, built
and occupied by Radama : the latter contains several
buildings either in the occupation of the sovereign and
part of his family, or for other uses which will be pre-
sently specified. The front line of palisadoes, in which
the front gate is situated, facing the north, reaches about
fifty paces ; and that on the west, the usual place of en-
trance, about one hundred and forty paces. Part of the
latter is occupied by three or four houses belonging to
the government.

The ground on which the palace is erected appears to
have been originally raised, by artificial means, from five
to seven or eight feet above the level of the public road,

* From Tampona, vertex, or top, and Vohitra, town or village.

HISTORY OF MADAGASCAR.

which passes it in a westerly direction. The raised ground
is well supported by means of a neat and strong stone
wall, of native construction. The palisadoes are placed
about six feet from the edge of this stone coping: they
are about eighteen or twenty feet in height, firmly driven
into the earth: those around the northern division are
united by cross-beams placed on the top, into which large
spears, painted yellow in imitation of gold, are driven with
their points upwards.

To the Anaty Rova there are two public entrances;
one through the palace, and another from the west. There
are also two private entrances; one from the east, and
another, not frequently used, from the north-east, allowing
no admission whatever for strangers. The northern en-
trance to the palace is finished with the greatest care.
A flight of twelve stone steps leads to the door, and on
each side is placed a sentry-box for the guards, who are
on duty day and night. The door is surmounted by a
large plate of glass, and various ornaments, more showy
than any pretensions to good taste would allow.

The northern division contains, as before remarked, the
Silver House : this was erected about ten years ago, under
the immediate superintendence of Radama, and was al-
ways selected as his residence when at the capital. It
derives its name from the circumstance of the bardeaux
of the roof, the gable-ends, ceilings, door-posts, &c. being
ornamented with silver nails and studs. Its dimensions are
small — twenty feet by twenty-four. The apartment on
the ground-floor is used as a store-room; and the upper
part of the building, which consists of two small rooms,
was occupied by Radama. It was furnished in the Euro-
pean style, and improved by the modern addition of a
veranda and a flight of steps.

h 2

100 HISTORY OF MADAGASCAR.

Within the southern division, the three principal build-
ings are, Besakana, Mahitsy, and Masoandro. The first
is considered the most important in all civil affairs, being
regarded as the throne of the kingdom; and the second,
the most sacred in all religious affairs. In Besakana,
" great width," the new sovereign is placed, and installed ;
there he bathes at the great annual festival of the Fan-
droana, and pronounces benedictions on the people ; and
there also the deceased sovereign is laid in state, previous
to interment.

In the house called Mahitsy, (that is, straight, and in a
moral sense, just,) is kept the idol Manjakatsiroa. Here
the sikidy, or divination, is worked for the sovereign,
on all affairs of public importance. It is here also, the
sacrifice of a cock is made at the commencement of the
Fandroana, which the sovereign attends, and after which
he proceeds to bathe in Besakana.

Masoandro, (i.e. the sun,) is the house in which the
newly constituted sovereign is placed immediately on acced-
ing to the throne. Here Radama was placed by order
of his father, to be guarded by the Tsiarondahy, the king's
body-guard, on the evening he perceived his death to
be near; and here also, Ranavalona, the successor of
Radama, was placed, on becoming the sovereign of the
empire .

Within this Anaty Rdva are two or three other buildings,
erected in the European style : one, called Marivo-lanitra,
occupied occasionally by the sovereign; another, a small
and neat residence, intended by Radama for his daughter
Raketaka; another used by the royal band of musicians,
and the house built by order of Radama, under his own
direction, for Mr. Jones the missionary, on his first arrival
at the capital, and subsequently appropriated to Rasalimo,

HISTORY OF MADAGASCAR.

101

consort of Radama.* Here are also the houses allotted
to those who are nominally the wives of the sovereign,
and another surrounded by a fence, which is merely an
occasional seraglio, without the strictness or refinements
of Turkish despotism, jealousy, or sensuality.

Hut, as if to show that man in his best estate is vanity,
as if he were destined to place some curb on his own
desires, to erect some " memento mart' in the midst of
his pleasures and grandeur — here, in sight of these houses
of power and enjoyment, are the tombs, the dilapidated
tombs, of former chieftains and kings.

In the immediate neighbourhood of the palace are the
houses of several of the judges, the nobles, and the prin-
cipal officers in the army, constituting this part of the
town, " componere parva cum ?nagnis" the Westminster
of Tananarivo.

On the western side of the palace-yard, the judges
hold their courts. The causes are tried in the open air,
either in true patriarchal style, beneath the shadow of
the fine row of fig-trees growing there, or on the stone-
wall of the fence already described. Formerly the
judges met to hear causes, deliberate, and administer
justice, in a house, not exposed to the gaze of the rude
or curious. On an occasion, however, not many years
since, the king was passing by the house in which the
judges were assembled, when the latter omitted to rise
and pay his majesty the usual tokens of homage, either
not seeing, or pretending not to see the king : Radama
tenacious of respect, and believing, with a Spanish monarch,
that " no ceremony should be deemed a trifle, since the

* Radama. on his marriage with Rasalimo, the Sakalava princess, re-
quested the Missionary to relinquish the house in her favour, promising,
at the same time, to furnish him with materials for another.

102

HISTORY OF MADAGASCAR.

king himself is but a ceremony," resolyed, that " those
who could see, and would not, should be made to see," and,
accordingly, ordered the house to be instantly taken down,
and directed that, in future, all causes should be tried, and
awards given, " sub dio" in broad day-light, that the admi-
nistration of justice might be open, and no one find excuse
for not paying due respect to majesty.

At a short distance from the palace, proceding north-
ward, and immediately opposite the great path on the
eastern side of the hill, is a spacious piece of ground,
called Antsahatsir5a, where kabarys, or public assemblies,
are frequently held, where the town-watch assembles every
evening, waiting till gun-fire as the signal for proceeding
to their respective wards; and where also a considerable
market is held for provisions, &c. during the time of mourn-
ing for the sovereign.

A little to the west of Antsahatsiroa is the spot to
which " strangers," viz. all who are not natives of Ankova,
are taken, to swear allegiance. It is a small pond, some-
times fed by a spring, or, in case of drought, supplied by
a few buckets of water. The oath taken here is called
mively rano, " to strike the water," a name taken from
a part of the ceremony, which consists in striking the
water with boughs of trees and a spear.

At a little distance from this spot is the top of the
Tarpeian rock of Madagascar, where criminals convicted
of witchcraft, sorcery, and similar offences, are executed
by being hurled headlong down the tremendous precipice.
The fall of the unhappy victim may be about sixty or
eighty feet; when he is inevitably killed, being dashed
amid the scattered masses of broken rock lying at that
distance : the fall is then from three to four hundred feet
further to the base of the hill, from the edge of which

HISTORY OF MADAGASCAR.

103

he has been hurled. The place is called Ampahama-
rinana.

The usual place of execution for ordinary criminals is
at the southern extremity of the hill on which the town
is built. It is designated Ambohipotsy. It is a dreary spot,
adapted to excite deep and melancholy feelings. Numerous
skulls are scattered over the ground, the only remains of
unhappy victims, who having suffered the sentence of the
law, were left as they fell, to be devoured by dogs and
birds. These animals appear familiar with the place,
and the scenes of terror it so often exhibits, and, as if
instinctively attracted to it, flock to the spot whenever
there is an execution, and seize their prey almost before
the executioners have left the ground. No one dares
remove the body of a criminal for interment, without pre-
viously obtaining the express permission of the sovereign.

Descending the hill by the high road through the town,
after leaving Antsahatsiroa, the next place of any public
importance is Andohalo, where the principal kabarys,
or public assemblies, are held. It is a large open space,
well suited, by its natural formation, for the purpose for
which it is used; and will continue to be esteemed as
such, so long as the custom obtains of assembling the
people en masse to receive messages from the sovereign,
and to transact all public affairs. On the north, south,
and east of this spacious area, the ground gently rises,
giving the site somewhat the appearance of a natural amphi-
theatre, and where from eighty to one hundred thousand
persons may conveniently assemble, and witness all that
passes. The high road from the west runs through the
centre of this Fikabariana, — " place of holding kabarys."
The eastern side is bounded by a row of fig-trees ; and
the elevated ground in front of these is occupied during

104 HISTORY OF MADAGASCAR.

a kabary by the judges or officers appointed by the sove-
reign to deliver royal messages.

When the sovereign appears in person, a temporary
stage is erected for him and his attendants ; which, how-
ever, by some kind of strange anomaly in state language,
is called Farafara, that is, "a bedstead." Its form some-
what resembles a native bedstead, and this may have led
to the name ; but if it were meant to intimate that the situa-
tion of a sovereign in Madagascar, is " repose upon a
downy couch,'' it would but ill accord with facts.

To the south of Andohalo are two spots, of no small
importance to a native : one, where the ceremony of
Milefon-omby, i. e. " killing the calf," is performed, being
another part of the ceremony of swearing the oath of
allegiance; and the other spot, adjoining the above, is a
large pond, where cattle and poultry enjoy many a luxu-
rious draught — where the daughters of the people may
be seen every hour of the day filling their sinys* with
water — and where the smiths are busily employed in
scrubbing off, with sand and water, the dirt and rust
from their swords and muskets, when the trumpet of war
is heard in the land, and a part of the army is about
to march from the capital.

Opposite to this pond is a part of the town which neither
the sovereign, nor any part of the royal family, may ever
enter. Some chieftain, or sovereign of former times, placed
himself and his successors for ever, under an obligation of
this kind; and time has rendered the observance of the
custom so sacred, that any sovereign who should have the
temerity to attempt an infraction of so important a privilege,
would now perhaps risk his head or his kingdom.

■ Native pitcher.

HISTORY OF MADAGASCAR. 105

A few paces below this, still descending the hill west-
ward, stands one of the the missionary chapels, and the
central school; the same building subserving both pur-
poses, a school-room and place of worship. Adjoining
it is the dwelling-house of the Rev. D. Griffiths, Mis-
sionary.

About one hundred yards farther, a building has been
erected, which comprises a repository, printing-office, and
School-society's rooms for library, &c, connected with the
Madagascar Mission. Near the foot of the hill, at some
short distance from the above building, stood formerly an
immense block of stone, which from time immemorial had
been venerated as sacred, but a few years past was blown up,
under the direction of the late Mons. Le Gros, in order
to widen and improve the road to the capital. Some
kind of mysterious affection is still cherished by the
natives for the spot, combined with some undefined notion
of its sanctity. It forms a boundary line, beyond which
animals and vegetables, forbidden by the idols, and deemed
unclean, may not be earned into the capital. Formerly
no pig nor goat might pass this limit, but those are now
kept at a still more respectful distance ; and at present,
though onions are allowed to be taken as far as this point,
they may not be carried one inch beyond it.

Just below this nicely discriminating point, two paths
branch off from the main road. The high-way itself is
continued towards Ambohitsorohitra, the residence of the
late Mr. Hastie, and thence to the fine vale of Betsimihi-
satra. The branch road to the north leads by Analakely,
the site of the king's spring, from which the royal family is
frequently supplied with water for daily use. Extensive
buildings for various manufactures, under the direction of
Mr. J. Cameron, have been erected in Analakily. Nearly

106 HISTORY OF MADAGASCAR.

opposite this spot there is an immense rock of sienite, from
part of which, stone slabs, for most of the tombs near the
capital are procured. The road leads from this part of the
rock, either into the country north of the capital, or along
the ridge of a hill covered with tombs, and joins the
capital near the part of Andohalo which kings are forbid-
den to enter. The road branching to the south, leads to
Amparibe, i. e. the place of much sugarcane, passes by the
depot for muskets, leads to the vale of Betsimihisatra, to
the king's threshing-floors, to a large marshy plantation of
rushes, to the piece of ground allotted by the king for the
missionaries on their arrival at Tananarivo ; and to the road
leading to the new palace of the sovereign at Soa-ierana.

At Amparibe the burial-ground for strangers is also
situated, the spot was selected by the government on the
decease of Mr. Brooks, missionary artisan, the first of
their number who was removed after the establishment of
the mission at the capital. In the same ground, several
members of the mission, Mr. Hastie, Rev. D. Tyerman,
and other foreigners, have been interred.

In the immediate vicinity of Tananarivo are two resi-
dences erected by Radama; one at Mahazoarivo, being
merely a cottage, intended to form a retreat from the
bustle of the town, and built on a very limited plan ; and
the other at Soa-ierana, still unfinished, but forming a
mansion or palace on a highly respectable scale.

Mahazoarivo is a small village, distant about two miles
south-east from the capital. The cottage was built, and the
grounds laid out, entirely under the direction of Radama.
The cottage itself consists of three rooms, to which are
attached numerous out-houses. It was built in 1826, by
Malagasy workmen, and the interior is neatly fitted up in
the European style. The garden contains a collection of

HISTORY OF MADAGASCAR.

107

all plants, shrubs, flowers, &c. introduced by foreigners to
the country ; and a considerable, though still extremely
imperfect collection, of those found in the island. It was
the intention of the king to have rendered the collection
of the plants of Madagascar as complete as he possibly
could. When his leisure from public business permitted
it, he spent much of his time in this retreat, and sought
amusement sometimes in a bull -fight, and occasionally
in the more quiet, but equally useful occupation, of
superintending the care of the garden. Close within the
gates of the front entrance, the king had formed with grass
turfs two letters, "R. R. Radama, Rex." one on each side
the great path to the cottage. Who, twenty years before,
would have thought of a Madagascar chieftain carving out,
in the turfs of his garden, the initials of his name and sove-
reignty in the learned language of Europe ?

To the south of the cottage is a small lake, in which
Radama kept a stock of fish and turtles. He had planted
also in the vicinity of the lake, several rofia trees.

Soa-ierana lies to the south of Tananarivo, distant
about one mile. The name was given to the site by
Radama, as signifying, " a place well suited for inquiry ;"
meaning, perhaps, where his subjects might bring their
grievances, make their requests, and assemble for the dis-
cussion of public affairs. An immense hill was cut down
in 1824, to form the site of the palace; an adjoining hill
was intended to be cut down, so as to improve its
prospect, and form a good road of approach to it. The
building was in a state of great forwardness, and would most
probably have been completed in the course of a few
months, had Radama lived. The prospect commanded
from the palace is extensive and panoramic. The front
affords a bold view of the south-west of the capital. A

108

HISTORY OF MADAGASCAR.

Mons. Le Gros, native of France, but late of Mauritius,
was engaged as architect and builder. Immense labour,
for a country like Madagascar, was expended on the build-
ing, particularly in conveying timber from the forest, a
distance of fifty miles. Many hundreds of the finest trees
that could be found, adapted to the purpose, were felled,
roughly stripped of their branches and bark, and then
dragged the distance stated above, by ten, twenty, thirty,
or forty men, to each piece of timber, as the case re-
quired ; the roads in some places being almost " impass-
able," rendered the effort truly herculean. About sixty
carpenters and apprentices were employed for four years on
the works. The building is about one hundred and twenty-
five feet long in front, and one hundred feet in depth.
The structure is entirely of wood, finished on the outside
in diagonal panels, resembling in appearance the style of
building frequently seen in South America. It consists of a
centre and two wings ; and the roof, which is covered with
shingles, corresponds with the threefold division. There are
about forty principal rooms on the ground-floor and first
story, besides a large number of attics and store-rooms. A
balcony is carried round the whole extent of the building ;
it is about five feet in width, well guarded in part by
iron railing, and in part by wood ; the balcony is supported
by semicircular arches, placed on columns. There are
two principal entrances, south-east and north-west, and
two others opposite to these. The kitchen, and passage
leading to it, are wholly subterraneous. The former is
two hundred feet from the building ; and the passage, which
is of the same length, was to have been constantly illumi-
nated with lamps.

An iron chain, supported by low wooden posts, surrounds
the whole, at the distance of forty feet from the building.

HISTORY OF MADAGASCAR.

109

A treble row of the aviavy, wild fig-tree, was planted soon
after the soil was levelled, round the grounds of the
palace, having two spacious rides, or " drives" between
them. It was proposed to erect handsome gates at the
entrances, and a splendid jet d'eau in front. A moat was
also to have been formed round the building, with two
draw-bridges ; and the spacious area in front of the palace
was designed for holding occasional kabarys.

The principal fault perhaps in the building is, its want
of elevation. The structure is too low for its extent, and
several of its rooms, otherwise spacious and noble, appear
paltry, and quite out of keeping with other parts, for want
of six or eight feet additional height. It is, however, far
more wonderful to find such an edifice at all, in a country so
little advanced in civilization as Madagascar, than that its
proportions should not be in good taste. Had the architect
been allowed to follow his own plan, it would have been a
superior building to that which he was obliged to make it.

The roads about the capital are kept in a very imperfect
state of repair. There is but little level ground ; the decli-
vities are often steep. The torrents of water which pour
down the roads in the rainy season, destroy the repairs made
during the summer ; and no highway levies are made. To
the government belongs the repairing of the roads, and for
that purpose it employs the prisoners, called gadralava,
" long chains," a name given them from the circumstance
of their being compelled to wear, and work in long iron
chains, reaching from the neck to the ankle.

Very few trees adorn the capital. An aviavy, or wild
fig, has almost the exclusive honour of admission within
the precincts of the metropolis of Madagascar. The fruit
of these is of little value, and, long before reaching per-
fection, is knocked off by the boys, and eaten at all risks of

110 HISTORY OF MADAGASCAR.

consequences. The vicinity of Tananarivo is almost as
destitute of trees and shrubs as the capital itself, which
certainly does not stand, as has been represented, in
a beautifully wooded country.

Tananarivo, like most towns in Ankova, and some of the
other provinces, was formerly surrounded, or intersected,
by immense ditches or moats. These were cut in the
earth with incredible labour, and constituted, in former
times, one of the principal means of defence against the
attacks of an enemy. Of these, six still remain at the
capital, and are crossed in passing through the town
from north to south. There are, also, a few ancient gates
left standing, but to these little value is now attached.
The modern system of attack and defence, by means of
cannon, and a disciplined army, renders comparatively
useless the gates and moats of ancient times.

The houses at the capital, and in its immediate vicinity,
are superior to all the rest in the island. On leaving the
capital, the houses become inferior in proportion to their
distanoe from it, excepting those in each village belong-
ing to the chiefs of the village or district.

The best houses in the province of Ankova, are con-
structed of wood, others are built of bamboo, some of
rushes, and others of mud ; the poorest kind are merely
excavations in the earth, thatched with reeds or long
grass.

This general description will probably suffice for the
dwellings of the natives throughout the country, as it is
difficult to give any account equally applicable to the habi-
tations of all the people, who, in consequence of their
intestine wars, have been so much separated in their social
habits, as to have adopted, in each province or district,
some peculiarity, either in the material of which their

HISTORY OF MADAGASCAR.

Ill

houses are constructed, the position in which they are built ,
the number or aspects of their doors or windows, or the
manner in which the interior is arranged. The following
are among the peculiarities of the chief tribes or races in
the island.

The Hovas have their towns and villages surrounded by
deep ditches. All their houses, without exception, are
placed north and south, and are of the same form, having
one high door in the south-west end. A window nearly
as large as the door to the north-west. The divisions and
arrangements of the interior are also the same in all.

In the provinces of the Antsianaka and Bezanozano, the
houses stand north and south, like the Hovas, but their
doors are north-west, and their windows south-west. The
arrangements within are also entirely the reverse of those
of the Hovas. They have ditches round their villages,
and many of the houses have a second door to the north-
east

In the northern parts of Betsileo, the houses are situated
north and south. The door is placed south-west, and the
window north-west, the bed inside being opposite the
door, and not opposite the window as in Ankova. With
them, as with the Hovas, their villages are surrounded by
deep ditches. They excel the Hovas in the construction
of magnificent tombs over the vaults of the dead.

The houses of the Sakalavas are in general miserable
huts, often little better than holes in the earth, covered
with branches of trees ; their towns and fortifications are
also without any kind of regularity. It is probable, that
in time of war, they have trusted rather to their own
bravery, to the defence of their immense woods and
forests, and to the food afforded by the wild cattle and other
natural produce which these wilds supplied, than to the

112

HISTORY OF MADAGASCAR.

ditches by which their villages might be surrounded, or the
granaries they might contain.

The Betsimisaraka have their houses built on pillars,
about one or two feet above the ground. They have one
window, opposite to which is the hearth in one corner of
the apartment. The houses have two doors opposite each
other.

The floors of the Malagasy houses are generally covered
with red and yellow rush mats, neatly put together.
Those of Manghabei are both soft and strong. On these
mats they repose without any sort of covering, sometimes
with a pillow for the head resembling a sofa-pillow, and
sometimes only with a log of wood placed under the mat.

HISTORY OF MADAGASCAR.

113

CHAP. V.

Population of Madagascar — Its probable amount — The chief political divi-
sions of the people, and the estimated number of each division — Dispro-
portion of population to the extent and resources of the country — General
description of the Malagasy — Description of the several races in the
island — Their respective provinces — The Hovas ; import of the term ;
their figure, colour, number, &c. — The Vazimba, or probable aborigines
of Madagascar — The Kimois, or nation of dwarfs — The >akalavas ; their
character, colour, habits, &c — The Bezanozano and the Antsianaka — The
north and south Betsileo — The Betsimisaraka and Betamimena ; their
stature, complexion, &c. — The inhabitants of the Isle of St. Mary's —
The Zafindramina, or descendants of the mother of Mahomet — Probable
origin of the distinct races in the island — Intellectual character of the
people — Moral qualities of the Malagasy — Their general disregard of truth,
&c. — Baneful influence of superstition on their moral character.

In a country which has, until recently, remained almost
entirely destitute of every species of statistical record, it
is exceedingly difficult to obtain any thing approaching to
accurate information respecting the number of its inhabit-
ants. Hence the population of Madagascar has been
variously estimated by different writers. It has, however,
generally been supposed to amount to about four millions ;
and from as correct a census as the state of the island
admitted, taken a short time previous to the decease of
the late king, Radama, it appears probable that this
estimate is not excessive, but that it would be a nearer
approximation to its actual amount of population, to state
it at from four millions and a half, to five millions. As the
basis of this estimate, it was ascertained by Prince Coroller,
from the officers of the respective districts, the Vadintany,
that there were upwards of one million of houses : five
persons were adopted as the average number of each house-
hold. The entire population thus given, comprehends the
i. i

114

HISTORY OF MADAGASCAR.

four chief political divisions of the people — the Hovas ; the

Sakalavas ; the Betsileo ; and the Betanimena and Betsimi-

saraka. Their relative numbers are thus estimated: —

The Hovas - 750,000

The Sakalavas, including the Bezano- }

i l-i a f • i i 1,200,000

zeno and the Antsianaka >

The Betsileo 1,500,000

The Betanimena and Betsimisaraka - 1,000,000

Total - 4,450,000

This amount of population is evidently less than the
island has contained at former and not remote periods of its
history. The embankments spread over large tracts of
country, now overgrown with grass or brushwood, shew
that these parts were once regularly-cultivated rice-fields ;
and the scattered ruins of villages, or whole ranges of vil-
lages, now totally deserted, especially in the Betsileo and
Sakalava countries, mark, though imperfectly, the extent
to which the country has been depopulated.

The female sex greatly preponderates, which, as well as
the diminution of population, may in part be accounted for
by the fearful waste of life among the men, in their fre-
quent and barbarous wars. The slave-trade, wars, infan-
ticide, trials by ordeal, and the prevalence of certain dis-
eases, may be specified as reasons sufficiently accounting
for the very limited population of a country capable of
maintaining at least five times its present number. Still
the amount of population is sufficient to excite interest
in their behalf, and give importance to the events by which
they are affected.

Madagascar is not inhabited by one single race (presenting
only minor and provincial differences, yet having a common
origin, and constituting an extended nation,) but by a num-

HISTORY OF MADAGASCAR.

115

ber of distinct tribes, more or less numerous, evidently
derived from more than one source ; differing also in many
respects from each other; and remaining, at the present
time, though nominally comprised in one political empire,
distinct and peculiar nations. No single account would,
therefore, present a just description of the various tribes
comprised in the population of Madagascar.

There are, however, points in which they bear a general
resemblance to each other ; among these are the following :
the inhabitants are rather below the middle stature, which
but few exceed ; and their countenances do not exhibit that
prominency of features which so frequently distinguishes
the European and Asiatic nations. The men are more
elegantly formed than the women, in whom there is usually
a greater tendency to corpulency than in the other sex.
The beards of the men are but weak, and are plucked out
in youth. Their hands are not so warm to the touch as
those of Europeans, and their blood by thermometer is
colder. These appear the chief among the few points in
which, physically considered, there is any resemblance
between the several nations. The distinction most strongly
marked is that of colour ; and this, though presenting
slight variations in each tribe, separates the population of
Madagascar into two great classes, and is by some supposed
to allow of its being traced to only two sources — the one
distinguished by a light, exquisitely formed person, fair
complexion, and straight or curling hair ; the other more
robust, and dark-coloured, with woolly hair.* In one or
the other of these classes, the several tribes inhabiting the
island may be included.

* Woolly : the analogy on which the hair has heen called wool, is ex-
tremely loose and general. It implies nothing more than a slight
resemblance.

i 2

11G

HISTORY OF MADAGASCAR.

The accompanying wood-cut of the likeness of the chief
officer in the embassy sent to England and France in 1 835,
which is copied from an excellent portrait taken by Sperling,
is given as exhibiting the characteristics of the fair or olive-
coloured class.

With regard simply to colour, there are but two distinct
races in Madagascar — the olive and the black. But as
these have occasionally intermixed, there are all possible
varieties between them ; and in some it would be difficult
to affirm to which division they belonged, being as much
inclined to one colour as the other. The vigour of health
frequently gives a ruddy tinge to the countenance of the
olive-coloured race ; but this, while it removes them from

HISTORY OF MADAGASCAR.

117

approximating in complexion to the yellow hue of the
Malays, does not give them any resemblance to the copper-
coloured Indians of America.

With respect to the quality of the hair, there are two
divisions also — the Tsotra, (tso-bolo,) straight, and the
Ngita, curly, or rather, frizzly. These have also inter-
mixed ; and the same remark applies here as to colour —
the frizzly has become almost straight in some cases, and
the straight almost frizzly.

The above two distinctions of colour and hair do not,
however, make two separate classes, but rather four ; for

there are: — 1. olive-coloured natives having straight hair ;
and, 2. olive-coloured natives with curly or frizzly hair :
of this class the accompanying wood-cut of one of the
members of the late embassy to Europe is given as an illus-

118

HISTORY OF MADAGASCAR.

tration. Besides the two classes just described, there are,
3. blacks having straight hair, and, 4. blacks with curly or
frizzly hair. But, ordinarily, the straight hair is with the
olive-coloured ; and the curly or frizzty, with the black.

Besides the distinctions arising from colour and hair,
which would exhibit the people in two great classes, the
olive and the black, the population of the island may be
considered as comprised in four chief or principal political
divisions, occupying as many large geographical sections,
which are also in a certain sense identical ; as the designa-
tion of the people and the country they inhabit is frequently
the same. These divisions are, first, the Hova ; second,
the Sakalava; third, the Betsileo; fourth, the Betanimena
and Betsimisaraka.

In the early part of the reign of the father of the late
Radama, a period not more than seventy years ago, the
Malagasy were divided into not fewer than fifty distinct
tribes, governed by their respective chieftains, and inde-
pendent of each other; the chief of each tribe exercising
absolute power over the lives, property, and services of his
subjects. Since that period the processes of amalgamation
have been rapid and effectual, and the principal divisions
now recognized are those already named : all the rest are
either subdivisions of these, or people belonging to one or
the other intermixed. That they are all nearly the same,
is manifest from their general colour, language, customs, and
the names of towns, rivers, hills, and productions.

That they are in some measure also distinct tribes,
is manifest from their dialects, and some peculiar cus-
toms. That they have intermingled, is manifest from their
intestine wars, which have not been extirminating wars,
nor wars prosecuted wholly for obtaining slaves for exporta-
tion, but wars of conquest, booty, and domestic slavery.

HISTORY OF MADAGASCAR.

119

They have been in the habit also of wandering or fleeing
from one part of the country to another, when pursued
by an enemy more powerful than themselves, and settling
where there was the greatest prospect of safety, just as
the remains of the Vazimba, the original inhabitants of
Ankova, now reside between the Imania and the Imanam-
bolo, in Menabe. A greater approximation to general
amalgamation will be perceived in the course of a few years,
from the constant residence of the Hova troops at distant
parts, in military stations on different parts of the island,
as most of these troops either intermarry with the women
of the provinces, or live with them in a far less honourable
state. The chief divisions, already referred to, we now
proceed to notice ; both as they regard the people them-
selves, and the portions of the country they respectively
occupy.

Geographically considered, the Sakalavas, with whom
we commence, are divided into two great sections, North
and South Sakalavas : the first includes the inhabitants of
Iboina in the north, and Ambongo in the north-west ; the
latter, those of Menabe in the west and south-west, extend-
ing on the west side of the island to Firenenana, which
continues to the south of St. Augustine's Bay. This
extensive region is sometimes called the Sakalava country.
A mixture of the Sakalavas and Betsileo inhabit the regions
to the south of Firenenana, embracing the southern extre-
mity of the island.

By some the Bezanozano, a small tribe, chiefly inhabiting
Ankay, situated on the south-east of Ankova, are consi-
dered as a branch of the Sakalavas. The Antsianaka,
inhabiting the province of the same name, to the north of
Ankova, are also considered as belonging to this nation,
which includes the black races of Madagascar.

120

HISTORY OF MADAGASCAR.

The Bezanozano and Antsianaka, are supposed to have
been conquered, and first separated, in a state of captivity,
or driven by war from the other Sakalavas, though the
distance to which they are removed is not great : the
Bezanozano, on the east, (occupying Ankaratra,) may be
supposed to have descended from the northern Sakalavas,
occupying Iboina, &c, and the Bezanozano on the north-
west, have probably descended from the Sakalavas of Am-
bongo or Menabe.

The next division of the country, according to the races
of the people, is the Betsileo, lying immediately within that
of the southern Sakalavas, and comprehending the interior
or central provinces of the island. It extends from Anka-
ratra southward, through Tatsimo to Tanosy ; Tatsimo
being another name for "southern Betsileo." The Tanosy
seem to be a branch of the southern Betsileo, blended
with the Betanimena, whose country proceeds from the
southern extremity along the eastern side of the island,
and stretches to Anteva, the province bordering on the
country of the Batanimena and the Bezanozano.

The country of the Betsileo also includes rather less
of the north part of the island than formerly. The region
immediately beyond the Ankaratra range of hills to the
south, sometimes called the Betsileo country, probably
belonged to the latter before they were subdued by the
Hovas, nearly forty years ago. But the country to the
south, nearest the Ankaratra, is now reckoned a part of
Ankova, and is called Vakinankaratra, i. e. " broken off
by Ankaratra," and this proceeds south to the Imania; but
from the Imania southward, to a limit not very accurately
defined, the country is called Betsileo. Beyond this
boundary it is called Tatsimo, or southern Betsileo, and
though Vakinankaratra is now one of the six divisions of

HISTORY OF MADAGASCAR.

121

Ankova, its inhabitants are evidently Betsileo, who are
spread over an extent of country greatly exceeding that
of the province which bears their name. The Betsileo
are evidently one of the most ancient races in the island, and,
according to their own traditions, came originally from An-
teva, a province on the south-western coast, and now inhabited
by the mixed race of the Betanimena and Betsimisaraka.

The country of the Betanimena commences southward
at the Mananjary, and terminates northward at Tany-fotsy :
the country of the Betsimisaraka spreads along the eastern
shore till it joins that of the Sakalavas of the north,
which includes the country sometimes called Hiaram-
bazaha, or Vohimaro.

An account of Ankova, the country of the Hovas, has
been formerly given, and those of the other chief divisions
of the island have been added ; it will, therefore, be proper
to give some account of the nations or races by whom
they are severally inhabited.

The first and most important race is the Hovas, who
inhabit the province of Ankova. They have in every
respect the pre-eminence, and possess the entire sove-
reignty over the greater number of the other provinces.

From Ankova, and from Vakinankaratra, the army of
Radama, by which the greater part of the island was
conquered, and by which the conquest is maintained, was
exclusively formed; and the island may, therefore, be
regarded as held in subjection by the Hovas. The army
was, in the first instance, formed at Tananarivo, the capital
of the Hovas, and afterwards augmented from other parts
of the province.

The use of the word Hova, though generally employed
to designate the olive - coloured race, requires further
explanation : — First, as to Ankova, or the country of the

122

HISTORY OF MADAGASCAR.

Hovas. This is the principal residence of the olive-
coloured race, and as they seem to be the proper and
original Hovas, they give name to the district where they
reside. But these olive-coloured are not the only inha-
bitants of Ankova. There are quite as many who are black,
but who are also called Hovas, from their residing in
Ankova; in fact, there are comparatively few who are not
black residing out of Imerina, and Imerina forms only one
division of Ankova; and in Imamo, Mandridrano, Voni-
zongo, Valalafotsy, and Vakinankaratra, a large majority
are black. Yet, in a restricted sense, all these, as belong-
ing to Ankova, may be called Hovas. Hence, then, the
race of the Hovas ( olive-coloured ) resides in Ankova,
and gives name to the district. But all are not olive-
coloured Hovas who reside in Ankova, for there are black
natives also who are Hovas. So that in one sense, all are
Hovas that live in Ankova — that is, so far as the name of
a district is concerned. But in another sense, all are
not Hovas that live in Ankova — that is, so far as a dif-
ference of origin prevails.

Another signification of the term is, perhaps, the most
important: the Hovas are a race distinct from all the
rest of the natives of Madagascar, an olive-coloured race,
and evidently not the aborigines of the country ; whether
they are of Malay origin, or of an African kingdom north
of Mosambique, (as was thought by Prince Coroller,) or
from Abyssinia, as the same prince at one time supposed,
are matters for inquiry and speculation. There is, perhaps,
considerable reason for thinking that the Hova race may
be a colony of Javanese ; but to detail the circumstances
on which that opinion has been founded, might be thought
tedious and uniteresting.

If a stranger were to land on the coast, say, at Tamatave,

HISTORY OF MADAGASCAR.

123

and meet an olive-coloured native, he would be quite safe
in saying, " This is a Hova," as to his physical race and
origin. But as that same Hova might happen also to be
a nobleman, it would be an affront to call him a Hova,
for he must be called an Andriana. Or, he might chance
to be a slave, and then it would be a title of too much
honour to call him Hova.

The central province of Madagascar is now the country
of the Hovas. They are not, however, the aborigines of
this part of the country, and it is impossible to determine,
with certainty, from what part of the island they came,
and obtained possession of this region. It is, however,
their general belief, that they came from the south-east of
Madagascar, and gradually dispossessed the aborigines of
the country.

There is some ground for supposing the Vazimba were
the first inhabitants of Ankova. The term Vazimba has
three several significations. In its strictest sense, it
appears to express the aborigines of the interior of the
island of Madagascar, from whatever part of the coast
they may have come. In a former part of this chapter,
it has been mentioned that between the two famous rivers,
I mania and Imanambolo, in Menabe, there exists a small
race of people called Vazimba, and it has been at times
thought, that they exhibit some correspondence with the
accounts given by Rochon, of a people called the Kimos,
inhabiting the interior of the island. The notices given
by Rochon are far too long for insertion here, but the
amount of them is briefly this, " That in the interior of
Madagascar is a nation of dwarfs, averaging three feet
six inches in stature, called Kimos, (or Quimos,) that they
are of a lighter colour than the negroes ; their hair short
and woolly, that their arms are unusually long, that their

124

HISTORY OF MADAGASCAR.

females generally nourish their young with cow's milk ; that
in intellectual faculties they are equal to other inhabitants
of the island ; that they are active, industrious, and cou-
rageous; that they manufacture iron and steel, of which
they make lances and assagays ; that they have villages on
the summits of high mountains, live chiefly on vegetables,
and rear great quantities of cattle; that they hold no
communication with the other islanders, and are perfectly
peaceable, unless provoked and attacked." The writer
adds, " that at the distance of two or three days' journey
from Fort Dauphin are several small barrows or hillocks,
owing their origin to a former massacre of these Kimos."

Singular as this account is, particularly in the instance
of the diminutive stature of the people described, it is
confidently reported, that on the banks of the rivers already
named, there still exists a race of natives corresponding
generally with the particulars stated by Rochon. The
distance, however, of these rivers from Fort Dauphin
is considerably greater than the situation mentioned by
Rochon as the country of this nation of dwarfs. He
speaks of sixty leagues north-west of Fort Dauphin, and
west of Matitany. The distance to the rivers in Menabe
must be, according to any calculation approaching to
accuracy, 100 or 120 leagues. The people may, however,
have migrated farther north within the last century ; or,
what is still more probable, Rochon's account may have
been incorrect.

Flacourt treats the subject in a very brief and cavalier-
like style, regarding the whole account as fabulous, and
forming merely an amusing counterpart to the stories of
the giants. Rochon condemns the incredulity of Flacourt,
and thinks he has solid facts to oppose to his scepticism
on the point. The most objectionable part of the account

HISTORY OF MADAGASCAR.

125

respects the stature; in this there must be a mistake,
nearly all the rest is credible. A few dwarfs are met with
in Imerina, but probably not in any greater proportion to
the population than in other countries, and certainly not
in sufficient numbers, nor possessing any peculiarities of
form, to justify a belief of their having constituted a
distinct race.

It is observable, that the traditional account given in
the present day, of the Vazimba, is, that they formed a
race of people a little below the common stature, having
a remarkably thin and flat configuration of the head,
and narrowing to the forehead. Their graves correspond
with the description given by Rochon. They resemble
small barrows, or gentle elevations of earth, with an up-
right stone placed in or near the centre, and a number of
smaller stones rudely thrown together, like the ruins of an
ancient grave.

It is not easy to arrive at any distinct conclusion : possi-
bly the Vazimba, said to have lived formerly in Imerina,
and whose graves still exist, came originally from the
same part of the country as those who are now said to
occupy the banks of the two rivers in Menabe, and that
these may be a part of the people described by M.M. de
Modave, de Commerson, and de Surville, in the " Voyage
de Rochon." Their accounts are, perhaps, exaggerated,
yet not without some foundation in truth. It is, how-
ever, somewhat remarkable, that many of the particu-
lars stated by the above writers, exactly correspond with
the Hovab, excepting the diminutive stature. The Hovas
are certainly below the general stature of the Malagasy,
and this may easily have given rise to the report of their
" pygmean" dimensions. But in regard to colour, intelli-
gence, activity, industry, courage, manufactures, produc-

126

HISTORY OF MADAGASCAR.

tions, habitations, the Hovas are what Rochon describes the
Kimos to be.*

Without entering further into the inquiry at present, it
may be sufficient to remark, that tradition and a few inci-
dental circumstances induce the belief that the first settlers
in Imerina came from some part eastward of Tananarivo,
and fixed their residence at the villages of Alasora, Ambo-
hitraina, and the neighbourhood. These villages are
within a few miles of the capital, and they are unques-
tionably among the most ancient in that part of the country.
They, as well as most places in Imerina, contain numerous
graves of the Vazimba ; constituting, as will be afterwards
shewn, the sacred places at which the natives offer their
religious worship. One circumstance indicating, agreeably
to the customs of the country, the antiquity and early
importance of Ambohitraina, is, that its speakers, to the
present day, are renowned in the public kabarys, i. e.
assemblies of the people, for tracing to a remote antiquity
the genealogy and origin of their chieftains ; a circumstance
to which the Malagasy attach the highest importance.

The population of Ankova is variously estimated ; but,
probably, taking an average from the conflicting state-
ments given, from eighty to one hundred thousand may be
regarded as nearly correct. This population is widely scat-
tered in numerous villages over the surface of the country.
The villages usually contain from fifty to one hundred
houses each ; while the capital, with its immediate vicinity,
contains a much larger number of inhabitants than any other

* Rochon expresses his surprise that Mons. Commerson had not verified
the relation of some Vazimbas having been buried under the barrows
pointed out to him, by opening one of them. This is entirely overlooking
the prejudices of the natives, who would never suffer a Vazimba grave
to be so desecrated. They would expect to suffer the most terrible
vengeance as the punishment of the sacrilegious outrage.

HISTORY OF MADAGASCAR.

127

equal portion of the country. Most of the villages are
situated on eminences ; some of them are extremely high,
and difficult of access. They are usually encircled, for
security, by a deep fosse; the earth from which being
thrown up on the inner side, forms a bank round the village,
which renders it difficult to scale the sides of the ditch, and
adds to the safety of the people.

The language of Ankova may be considered as the stan-
dard of the Madagascar dialects. It is also the most copious,
and, being the least nasal, is the most pleasing to the ear
of an European. Its copiousness may in part be accounted
for by the constant influx of strangers from all parts of the
island; these strangers, as well as the soldiers returning from
the different provinces after a campaign, or a season of
garrison duty, bring with them in many cases, no doubt
without being aware of it, or intending it, valuable addi-
tions to the stock of the Tenin-kova, the language of the
Hovas.

In person, as already remarked, the Hovas are generally
below the middle stature. Their complexion is a light
olive, frequently fairer than that of the inhabitants of the
southern parts of Europe ; their features rather flat than
prominent; their lips occasionally thick and projecting,
but often thin, and the lower gently projecting, as in the
Caucasian race: their hair is black, but soft, fine, and
straight, or curling ; their eyes are hazel, their figure erect ;
and though inferior in size to some of the other tribes, they
are well proportioned. Their limbs are small, but finely-
formed; and their gait and movements are agile, free, and
graceful. Though distinguished by their promptitude and
activity, their strength is inferior to that of other tribes ;
and they are far more susceptible of fatigue from travelling
or labour.

128 HISTORY OF MADAGASCAR.

Next to the Hovas are the Sakalavas. More numerous,
especially when regarded as comprehending the Bezanozano
and the Antsianaka, than their successful rivals, and occu-
pying more extensive territories, this nation was, during
the last century, the most powerful in Madagascar, having
reduced the Hovas to subjection, and exacted from them a
formal acknowledgment of their dependence. Tribute
was annually sent from Ankova to the king of Menabe, the
ruler of the South Sakalavas, until Radama invaded their
territories with an army of one hundred thousand men, and
induced their chieftain to form with him a treaty of peace.
The Sakalavas are a brave and generous people; phy-
sically considered, they are the finest race in Madagascar.
In person they are tall and robust, but not corpulent ; their
limbs are well formed, muscular, and strong. On them a
torrid sun has burnt its deepest hue, their complexion being
darker than that of any others in the island. Their fea-
tures are regular, and occasionally prominent ; their coun-
tenance open and prepossessing; their eyes dark, and their
glance keen and piercing ; their hair black and shining,
often long, though the crisped or curly hair occurs more
frequently among them than the inhabitants of other pro-
vinces. Their aspect is bold and imposing, their step firm
though quick, and their address and movements often
graceful, and always unembarrassed.

The God of nature has so liberally supplied their
wants with his bounties of spontaneous growth, in their soil,
that, unless roused by strong excitement, the habits of the
Sakalavas, like those of other uncivilized countries, incline
to indolence rather than activity. Summoned to war, espe-
cially to defensive war, they are prompt, energetic, resolute,
and daring ; but, the storm passed, the immediate danger
removed, or surrounded with peace, and dwelling in

HISTORY OF MADAGASCAR.

security, they surrender themselves to a state of compara-
tive indolence ; and become the too-willing victims of the
delusions by which their race are more strongly spell-
bound than most of the other natives of Madagascar —
charms, divination, and sorcery.

Towards Europeans, the Sakalavas have generally che-
rished sentiments of friendship, entertaining an exalted
opinion of their superiority. And though themselves
degraded at present by their childish superstitions, by their
faith in witchcraft and all its endless absurdities, they yet
exhibit ample proofs of mental powers capable, under
proper culture, of the highest attainments : if enriched with
the means of intellectual and moral improvement, they will,
in all probability, rise, as others, once as dark, deluded,
and degraded as they are, have emerged from barbarism,
and attained eminence and moral worth among the nations.
There is something in the very appearance of the Sakalava
in his favour. His manly air and gait, his full countenance
and penetrating look, declare him destined to something
higher and nobler than he has yet attained. In ordinary
intercourse, the Sakalavas discover much shrewdness, with
less of cunning or deceit than many of their neighbours.

The Betsileo, a term signifying invincible, form a third
distinct race in Madagascar; and though in some respects
they resemble their neighbours and conquerors, the Hovas,
in others they are distinct. They are generally low in
stature, slender in figure, erect, and nimble in their
movements ; their colour is occasionally light copper, though
frequently dark ; their lips are thick, the eyes hazel, and
their hair black, long, and curling. In these respects they
approximate to the Hovas; but, in their patriarchal mode
of life, modest unassuming address, the absence of any-
thing like a bold and martial bearing in aspect or beha-

I. K

130 HISTORY OF MADAGASCAR.

viour, their attachment to the peaceful labours of agricul-
ture, want of that energy, enterprise, and cunning which
have made the Hovas sovereigns of a large portion of the
island, as well as in many of their manners and customs,
they appear to be a different people, and seem to possess
few, if any, traits of character which could have originated,
or have justified the assumption of the name by which they
are now distinguished.

The Betanimena and Betsimisaraka, already stated to
be evidently but one people, constitute the next distinct and
numerous portion of the inhabitants of Madagascar, differing
in many respects from the Betsileo, as much as the latter
do from their western neighbours the Sakalavas.

In stature, the Betanimena and Betsimisaraka resemble
the Hovas, and, though in complexion rather darker, are,
next to them, the fairest race in the island : their hair is
generally frizzly, though not always black ; their move-
ments are less active than those of the inhabitants of the
centre and western parts of the island ; and though their
limbs are strong and muscular, they exhibit only occa-
sionally the bold and martial courage of the Sakalavas, or
the enterprise, consciousness of power, and industry of the
Hovas; though peculiarly distinguished by cleanliness in
their houses and apparel, they seem, with comparatively
few exceptions, to be degraded in morals below most of
their countrymen, and are often the subjects of apathy and
indolence in equal extremes. They are, however, in some
respects an interesting people.

The inhabitants of the Isle of St. Mary's call themselves
the descendants of Abraham — a designation most probably
brought by some of the numerous pirates who, since the
discovery of the island, have settled on its borders, and,
intermarrying with the aborigines, have ultimately mingled

HISTORY OF MADAGASCAR.

131

their peculiar characters with those of the native inha-
bitants. The lineaments of European features, occasionally
observable in the countenances of the Betsimisaraka and
the Betanimena, may probably have been derived from
this early intercourse of the natives with Europeans.

In the province of Matitanana, the Arabs, who for cen-
turies past have been accustomed to trade with the Mala-
gasy, have their principal settlements ; and this province is
the chief residence of the people designated Zafindramina,
descendants of the mother of Mahomet, from Zafy, descend-
ants, and Amina, for " Imana," the mother of the prophet.
It is supposed that at some remote period, a number of
Arabs, followers of the Prophet, settled in Matitanana, and,
by intermarrying with the natives, became amalgamated
with the original population, but gave to the descendants
the distinctive name which they still bear. The Betsi-
misaraka is composed of the Zafibirihama, the Zafindramina
blended with the aborigines of Matitanana and the adjacent
provinces. This may account for the lightness of their
colour, and the number of distinguished chiefs that have
risen up among them. Without specifying others, we may
mention the late Jean Rene, Fisatra, and Prince Corroller,
who were of the race of the Zafindramina.

The Bezanozano, "anarchical,'' are the next tribe
that requires notice. They are not numerous, yet seem to
be totally distinct from the Betsimisaraka on the one hand,
and the Hovas on the other. They are not tall, but re-
markably stout ; their neck is short, their bust full, their
colour black, their features flat, their hair occasionally
curly, but most frequently approaching to the frizzly or
crisped appearance. Their joints are stiff, and their move-
ments heavy : they are considered the best coolies, or
bearers of burdens, in the country. They exhibit many

k 2

132

HISTORY OF MADAGASCAR.

commendable traits of character, manifest frequently great
decision and firmness, with independency of action, and a
fondness for domestic life. Polygamy prevails to a very
limited extent, and their morals appear superior to those of
many other tribes.

The Antsianaka, "not subjects of others," though re-
garded as a distinct race, appear to resemble the last tribe
in its most distinguishing peculiarities. They are black in
colour, short in stature, and firmly set ; their limbs are
strong. The Antsianaka are more numerous than the
Bezanozano ; and however independent they may at one
time have been, they are now easily held in subjection by
the Hovas.

The power of disciplined troops, and the comparative
weakness of mere numbers, were strikingly evinced in a
fact which lately occurred in this province ; in which it is
stated, that three thousand of the natives were successfully
opposed and routed by five soldiers. It is reported, that at
the first shot one of the three thousand was killed, and that
the rest, probably expecting a similar fate, instantly fled.

The above are the principal races or tribes recognized
by the people themselves ; and though there are others,
especially in the southern parts of the island, with which
we are less familiar than with those already described,
they are inferior in number and importance, and are rather
branches of them than distinct tribes.

Physically considered, the various nations now inhabiting
Madagascar appear to form two distinct races, in many
respects totally dissimilar, and having each a separate and
probably remote origin. Between these races the distinc-
tion of colour is marked and permanent. The peculiarities
of the dark race are, a black complexion, and a taller
stature than the olive-coloured tribes, stouter body, thick

HISTORY OF MADAGASCAR.

133

projecting lips, curly or frizzly hair, a frank and honest
hearing, or a grave or timid expression of countenance ; some
of the tribes exhibiting a full bust, resembling the Africans
on the Mozambique shore.

The fairer race, including the Hovas, and many indivi-
duals among the Betsileo, the Betsimisaraka, and Betani-
mena, but especially the Hovas, are distingushed by a light
olive or copper skin, smaller stature, long hair, dark hazel
or black eyes, erect figure, courteous and prepossessing
address, active movements, with an open and vivacious
aspect.

All the tribes have naturally fine and regular teeth,
beautifully white, which is to be ascribed to their practice
of washing them regularly, and cleaning or bleaching
them by the use of a dye, or pigment, made from the
laingio,* a native plant. The former race probably emi-
grated, at some remote period, from the adjacent coast of
Africa. The latter have evidently one origin in common
with that singular and astonishing race whose source is yet
involved in mysterious uncertainty, but

" Whose path was on the mountain wave ;
Whose home was on the sea:"

whose spirit of adventurous enterprise led them, at a
period when navigation was almost unknown in Europe, to
visit the borders of Africa and of Asia, and whose descend-
ants now people the shores of the straits of Malacca, the
Malayan archipelago, and the chief clusters of the Poly-
nesian islands.

We have no better means of ascertaining the period at
which the distinct tribes now inhabiting Madagascar arrived
on its shores, than we have of tracing the several races to
the sources of their origin. The dark-coloured natives
* Sophonicus lingum.

134

HISTORY OF MADAGASCAR.

appear to have been the earliest settlers in the island,
and may therefore be considered as the aborigines of the
country, as tradition respecting the settlement of the fairer
race invariably represents them as having, at the time of
their arrival, found the country inhabited. Their languages
do not assist the inquiry, for they have been so intimately
blended, as to present, in those spoken by the distinct races
respectively, fewer peculiarities than are in other points
observable among those by whom they are used.

We have already seen that the physical peculiarities of
the several tribes now constituting the population of Mada-
gascar, are considerably diversified ; and serviceable as an
acquaintance with their distinctions might be, in aiding
our inquiries into the origin of the nations now peopling
our globe, and the means and the course by which many
tribes of the human family reached the countries which
they now inhabit, these points are, when the mental and
moral qualities of the people are regarded, compara-
tively unimportant. We contemplate their intellectual
habits and powers, and their peculiarities of mind, with
greater satisfaction, and derive from these, when viewed
in connexion with their physical constitution, new evi-
dence, not only of the fact that God has made of
one blood all the nations that dwell on the face of the
earth, but that He has endowed them with faculties of a
corresponding order; and that while the same variety is
observable in this as in other portions of the Creator's
workmanship, all the essential elements of our intellectual
nature belong equally to the several portions of mankind ;
and that the elevation, strength, and vigour these attain in
some, and the imbecility and prostration to which they have
sunk in others, are to be ascribed to the culture bestowed
and the direction given to the one, and the neglect, indo-

HISTORY OF MADAGASCAR.

135

lence, and vice by which the other is degraded and
destroyed. And though the lineaments of their character
shew, with affecting distinctness, how largely they have
shared in the calamities which sin has inflicted on our race,
a knowledge of this will not diminish our concern for their
welfare, nor repress our desires to become more intimately
acquainted with their circumstances.

In order to a correct view of the Malagasy, some
account of their mental and moral qualities is neces-
sary. In noticing these, we observe, that the intellectual
powers of the Malagasy are not inferior to their physical
qualities. Their mental faculties, though, in the ma-
jority of cases, deteriorated by sensuality, enfeebled and
cramped in their exercise by the juggleries of divination
and sorcery and the absurdities of superstition, are yet
such as to warrant the conclusion, that they are not inferior
to other portions of the human race — that if liberated from
the debasing trammels by which they are now confined,
and favoured with enlightened and generous culture, they
are capable of high mental excellence.

Among the dark-coloured race, the Sakalavas manifest
the greatest intellectual vigour, uniting a remarkable
quickness of perception with soundness of judgment ;
but we are not so well acquainted with any of these as
with the fairer portion of the inhabitants, especially the
Hovas, and to them, chiefly, our observations refer. Their
mode of thinking, as described by Mr. Baker, who was for
many years connected with the Mission at the capital, is
generally clear, definite, and consecutive ; often prolix in
introducing a thought, but distinct and pointed in exhibit-
ing the thought itself; shrewd and ready in argument or
dispute, frequently enforcing their opinions with perspi-
cuity, order, and confidence. Like all uncivilized nations,

136 HISTORY OF MADAGASCAR.

they are, however, exceedingly averse to intellectual effort ;
and hence, though their mental exercise is prompt and
lively, they do not seem to possess the qualities of mind
requisite for close and continued thought. The imagina-
tion is in most frequent use, and, like all uncivilized
nations, they are fond of metaphors, unfolding or applying
many of their popular maxims by allegory or fable.

The almost entire absence of abstract nouns in the
language of Madagascar, indicates one great peculiarity in
the mind of the nation, and has probably exerted consi-
derable influence in continuing, if not in originating, the
modes of thinking most prevalent among the people,
rendering them so much more familiar with sensible
than with intellectual objects. Facts, anecdotes, occur-
rences, metaphors, or fables, relating to or derived from
sensible and visible objects, appear to form the basis of
most of their mental exercises. This also, in all probabi-
lity, augments the impurity of those chambers of imagery
which their imaginations create, and in which it appears to
afford them delight to revel.

Notwithstanding mental application is in general so irk-
some, their acquaintance with numbers, the extensive cal-
culations many of the natives make, their keenness in barter
or trade, their system of government, and many of their
usages, indicate considerable strength of mind ; and when
a stimulus sufficiently powerful is applied, they have shewn
in many instances no natural deficiency of clear and
vigorous intellectual faculties ; while the specimens of elo-
quence and poetry, few indeed in number, with which we
are acquainted, cannot be regarded but as the fruits of
native genius of no common order. The introduction of
letters, the general diffusion of education, and the labours
of the press, established among them, are already pro-

HISTORY OF MADAGASCAR. 137

during the most extensive and beneficial effects, in exciting
the long dormant energies of the native mind. Many, in
an exceedingly short space of time, have been able to read
their own language with correctness and fluency; while
others in the more advanced state of their education have
advanced with equal rapidity.

The moral qualities of the Malagasy are less equivocal
than their mental characteristics, and far more censurable and
injurious. With less that is sprightly and prepossessing in
manners and address, the dark-coloured tribes possess more
that is commendable and amiable in social life ; and there
are among them more straightforwardness and honesty than
in the fairer races. The latter, with the exception of the
Betsileo, exhibit, with but few traits of character that can
be regarded with complacency, much that is offensive to
every feeling of purity and every principle of virtue. They
are often, probably under the influence of superstition and
revenge, coolly and deliberately cruel towards their van-
quished in war; they appear to be naturally vain, self-compla-
cent, and indolent, unless when roused to effort by ambition,
avarice, revenge, or lust : ambition and a love of domination
appear inherent They exhibit also a strong inclination,
where they possess the means, to indulge in those gratifi-
cations which are the usual attendants on indolence, viz.
gluttony and intemperance. From the debasing habits
of inebriety the population of Ankova are restrained by the
enforcement of laws which make intoxication a capital
crime ; but if free from the restraint these laws impose,
it is supposed no people would surrender themselves more
completely to this humihating vice than the Hovas.

Their sensuality is universal and gross, though generally
concealed : continence is not supposed to exist in either

138

HISTORY OF MADAGASCAR.

sex before marriage, consequently it is not expected, and
its absence is not regarded as a vice.

The relative affections, as might be expected, are often
feeble and uncertain. Family feuds are frequent, and many
of the public trials before the judges are between branches of
the same family. Occasionally two brothers, or a brother
and sister, avoid all friendly intercourse for years ; and the
conjugal, parental, and filial ties are often dissevered for the
most trivial causes. Yet the claims of relationship are
distinctly recognized by custom and law. If one branch
of a family becomes poor, the members of the same family
support him ; if he be sold into slavery for debt, they often
unite in furnishing the price of his redemption ; if he dies,
they bury him, and provide for his survivors ; and if he is
engaged in government service, the sovereign expects them
to support him. The laws facilitate and encourage, and
sometimes even enforce, such acts of kindness. In many
instances, where a person is condemned to slavery, which
is called being lost, the farantsa, a sort of public appraisers,
put a nominal value on him, by the payment of which he
can be redeemed by his relatives, but not by any other per-
sons. Public odium frequently attends the non-performance
of relative duties. But in such cases the previous dis-
owning of a relative exonerates the party from all obliga-
tions to the disowned, just as the adoption of a child, or the
marrying a wife, involves all the claims of these relation-
ships.

Friendships by compact are often faithful, lasting, and
highly beneficial; very great kindness is also shown by
parties not bound by formal compact, but merely by the
ties of acquaintance and neighbourhood. Visiting, assisting
in distress, lending and borrowing property and money, &c«

HISTORY OF MADAGASCAR.

130

are carried on much more commonly and freely than
amongst neighbours or relatives in England. A kindness
of heart in these things is called malemy fanahy, " tender
disposition ;" and a compliant, easy temper is called mora
t'anahy, " easy disposition." The former is always esteemed
excellent, but the latter is capable of being excessive, and
is then regarded as foolish and weak.

Hospitality, a few of the southern parts of the island
perhaps excepted, is exercised with cheerfulness and
promptitude, especially towards strangers. The general
disposition of the Malagasy, when they are free from the
influence of superstition or revengeful feelings, is also
quiet and indifferent, rather than violent and savage. Self-
ishness is held in universal detestation : the word used to
denote a selfish person is, sarotra, " hard," or " difficult ;"
and numerous tales are told to impress the minds of children
with its abhorrent nature ; in fact, they all admit that a
selfish disposition in eating, drinking, &c, betraying a
desire to monopolize the best to oneself, is disgusting.

Although there is no single word in the Madagascar
language to signify, literally, " generosity," there is little
difficulty in expressing the idea. Mora, " easy," is often
used for generous, and so is malemy fanahy, as implying
kind-heartedness as opposed to selfishness and avarice.
Gratitude, also, has no appropriate word ; yet, to thank, to
return kindness for kindness, to give pleasure to the Mend
who relieves, &c. can be distinctly stated. Ingratitude is
expressed by many strong metaphors, as zana-baratra,
" son of a thunderbolt," probably alluding to the fable of
a meteoric stone (thunderbolt) being carried very carefully
by an aged female into her house, placed near the fire, and,
there bursting, occasioning considerable injury to the old
lady and her habitation ; zana-dralambo, " offspring of a

140 HISTORY OF MADAGASCAR.

wild boar," because it is affirmed that the young boar,
when running by the side of its dam, continually gets before
her, and turns round to bite its parent. To be avaricious,
is expressed by mahihitra, " grasping at ;" and sometimes
by antanamamba, " in the hand of a crocodile." Such
characters are regarded as odious, and are deprecated in
the public proclamations.

Apathy, want of decision, and excessive indolence, cha-
racterize, very generally, the natives of Madagascar ; and
these, with the oppressions of the government, may be
regarded as the fruitful sources of much of the extreme
poverty that prevails in the country, and of many of the
seasons of famine from which they suffer so severely. The
mass of the people seem alike destitute of forethought and
enterprise, and hence are unprepared for any failure of their
crops, and unable to extricate themselves from any unfore-
seen calamity. Nothing is a greater impediment to the
advancement of civilization than indolence; and nothing
shows this more distinctly than the state of starvation in
which the people are sometimes found, while a small
amount of labour on the rich soil of the country around them,
would have supplied provision in abundance for a greatly
augmented population. They are also far from being
cleanly in their persons, and bathe but seldom.

Mr. Hastie states, that their passions are never violently
excited ; that they are not quick in avenging injuries, but
cherish for a long time the desire of revenge for the most
trifling insults, while they rejoice or exult in the distress of
others. In obedience to their rulers, they are influenced
by fear, and, when gathered in large numbers, have been
seen to look upon distress and death with perfect indiffer-
ence ; or, if any feeling has been manifest, it has often
been that of pleasure. The public executions exhibit more

HISTORY OF MADAGASCAR.

J41

painfully, not only the absence of all the finer sensibilities
of our nature, but the worse than brutalized state of the
public mind. The unhappy victims of the treacherous
ordeal of poisoned water, when declared guilty, are savagely
dragged away, their bodies mutilated in a most horrid man-
ner, or they are hurled down a fearful precipice, in the
presence of multitudes of spectators, who look on without
the least emotion of pity ; while the children who have
mingled with the crowd, amuse themselves by throwing
stones at the lifeless bodies, which the dogs are rending to
pieces.

Amidst so much that is opposed to every dictate of
humanity, we notice with pleasure any indication of more
generous feelings ; and besides the sensibilities of this order
already mentioned, few are more conspicuous than their love
of country. With rare exceptions, they always leave their
homes under great depression of spirits. It has been
observed by Mr. Hastie, and others who have accompanied
them on their military and other expeditions, that many
become exceedingly melancholy if the period of return be
delayed ; and it is supposed, that some fall victims to their
love of home. The Hovas often, when setting out on a
journey, take with them a small portion of their native
earth, on which they often gaze when absent, and invoke
their god that they may be permitted to return to restore it
to the place from which it was taken. But when returning
from a foreign land to their native island, or from a distant
province to their own, every countenance beams with glad-
ness, they seem to be strangers to fatigue, and seek, by
singing and dancing on their way, to give vent to the ful-
ness of their joy.

But even in these circumstances of grateful pleasure,
their hardheartedness is strikingly exhibited. As the

142 HISTORY OF MADAGASCAR.

army approaches the capital, or the province of Ankova,
many of the relatives of the soldiers hasten to meet them,
travelling sometimes ten or twenty miles. When they meet
the cordial salutation and affectionate embrace, the rubbing
of the feet of the returning soldier presents a most delight-
ful scene; but in contrast with this may be seen the
agonizing grief of those who now learn that a son, a bro-
ther, a husband, or a friend, will return no more ; they
dishevel their hair, and give utterance to their distress in
loud and mournful lamentations ; but this excites no atten-
tion, and calls forth no kindly sympathy, from those around
them who are placed in happier circumstances.

Duplicity has been represented as the most conspicuous
trait in the moral character of some of the races. It is
remarkable that there are in the native language more
words to express the various modes of deceiving, than any
other vice. The natives will invent the most specious
pretences, and assume the most plausible air, to impose on
the credulity of others, and ingratiate themselves into favour,
while their real design is hid for weeks and months in their
own bosoms. If they wish to make a request, they will
preface it by so complimentary a speech, and so many
thanks and blessings for a kindness yet to be done, and by
such servile flattery for a virtue to be illustrated in the
forthcoming gift, that one might imagine the whole nation
a tribe of sycophants, or minions of a court. It is said to
be often impossible to understand their object for an hour
or more, as they will talk on the most apparently dissimilar
subjects, but with a visible restlessness, until, after all the
windings of plausibility are travelled through, they hit, as
if by accident, on the point designed from the beginning.
It is remarkable, that this characteristic equally distin-
guishes all public proceedings. Every petition to the

HISTORY OF MADAGASCAR.

143

sovereign is prefaced by a long prologue of flattery and
servility, when the petition is made to close the address
often in the following words : " And since this is finished,
since the introduction is accomplished, we have to beg
and petition," &c. &c. Every answer to a proclama-
tion of the sovereign asking advice of the chieftains, is
commenced by an eloquent but hackneyed detail of their
sovereign's royal pedigree, supremacy, equity, &c. The
sovereign also usually smooths the way for any unpalate-
able declaration by a little of the oil of flattery previously
poured into the people's ears, calling them " the ancient
soot," (which has adhered for generations to the house of
their ancestors,*) and the " under the day," the " under the
the sky," &c. to which many other illustrations might be
added.

In bartering, every trader asks, at least, twice as much
as he intends to take ; and they never forget to boast of
any instances of successful fraud. The best sign of genius
in children is esteemed a quickness to deceive, overreach
and cheat. The people delight in fabulous tales, but
in none so much or universally as in those that relate
instances of successful deceit or fraud, though involving
loss of life, as well as of property, to the injured person.

Lying is a common vice among all. To lie, is esteemed
clever and pleasant, and more likely to serve one's pur-
pose of interest or pleasure than to tell truth. In short,
their constant aim is, in business to swindle, in pro-

* The native houses in Madagascar having no chimneys, and the door
and window affording the only means of escape for the smoke arising from
the fires which are kindled on the floor of the house, the soot collects on
the inner side of the roofs of their dwellings, where it is never disturbed
by the people, who consider it a badge of honourable ancestry to have
large quantities of soot hanging, frequently in long black shreds, from the
roof of their dwelling.

144

HISTORY OF MADAGASCAR.

fessed friendship to extort, and in mere conversation to
exaggerate and fabricate. The laws regard the testimony
of witnesses as a part of circumstantial evidence, to be
opposed by contrary testimony or evidence. Lying, has
in some cases, been enforced on the natives, it having been
required of every Hova, when speaking with foreigners on
political matters, to state the exact opposite to truth, on
pain of punishment. So far has this been carried, that
it was once a serious and public complaint against Chris-
tianity, that it taught the people to scruple at telling lies,
even to deceive their country's enemies.

Many of the Malagasy seem to think expediency deter-
mines the character of actions, and act as if they had no
perception of what is vicious. The laws, publicly pro-
claimed, define vice ; and there are terms for depravity,
guilt, error, &c. and it appears that from these, and pro-
verbial admonitory sayings, the people derive their ideas
of what is right or wrong. But whilst the baneful
influence of degeneracy of heart, and long familiarity with
sin, have been such as to lead them to regard theft, and
other acts of darker moral turpitude, as almost harmless,
innumerable ceremonial observances are enjoined as duty,
and the neglect of them regarded as criminal.

Idolatry, wherever it prevails, leads to this gross per-
version of all correct moral sentiments and feelings, by
ascribing all calamities to declared errors of conduct, such
as eating certain herbs, sitting in a certain posture, &c.»
and satisfying itself by endeavouring to remove all evil, and
attain all good, by mere external observances, often absurd
in themselves, and worse than useless to those who perform
them.

HISTORY OF MADAGASCAR.

145

CHAP. VI.

Manners and customs of the Malagasy — Their general uniformity through-
out the different tribes — Observances connected with the birth of children
— Attentions shewn to the mother — Ceremonies observed on first taking
the infant out of the house — Employment of the sikidy to ascertain its
destiny — Proportion of the sexes— Practice of scrambling — Bestowment
of names — Fearful prevalence of infanticide — Motives to its perpetration
— Means by which it is effected — Circumstances in which it differs from
the infant-murder formerly practised by the South Sea Islanders — Fond-
ness of parents for the children that are spared — Amusements of child-
hood— Occupations of youth — The custom of betrothing — Ages at which
marriages are celebrated — Ceremonies observed — Parties between whom
marriage is prohibited — Polygamy ; its extent and disastrous effects —
Divorce ; its frequency — Usual mode of proceeding in divorce — Disposal
of the children — Degraded condition of the female sex.

Next to the physical, moral, and intellectual peculiarities
of the Malagasy, their manners, customs, institutions, and
usages are subjects of inquiry and interest ; and in pro-
ceeding to offer a brief sketch of the more conspicuous and
remarkable of these, it may not be improper to observe,
that the accounts refer chiefly to the customs and usages
which obtain amongst the inhabitants of the interior
provinces. A description of the peculiar observances of
the different tribes would be as uninteresting as it is unne-
cessary, since a general resemblance is manifest in all. If,
however, the inhabitants of different parts of the island
have not respectively their own customs, they have their
modes of observing the national customs. In the
general character of their usages there is great uniformity ;

146

HISTORY OF MADAGASCAR.

the variety chiefly respects their minor circumstances, and
in this respect resembles the diversity that may be noticed
in their language. The language is one — the dialects differ.
In the same manner, the general customs are alike, but
vary in their details according to different localities,
and, if the expression may be allowed, the customs have
their " provincialisms." Some of the clans or families are
also more scrupulous than others in maintaining unimpaired
their own peculiar observances, adhering most servilely to
the wisdom of their ancestors. Innovation and injury are
in their minds inseparable, and the idea of improvement
altogether inadmissible. To these opinions principally is
to be attributed that remarkable uniformity which prevails
in many of their habits and sentiments, where otherwise
they would exhibit considerable variety.

The present inhabitants are, as already observed,
evidently derived from more than one nation, and have, as
might reasonably be expected, a diversity of customs cor-
responding with their distinct sources. It ought to be
remembered also, that they never, in point of fact, consti-
tuted one entire nation — were never brought under one
individual sovereign — but have, from a period of remote
antiquity, probably from the arrival of the earliest settlers,
consisted of distinct races or tribes under independent chief-
tains, and have consequently never been subjected to the
assimilating influence of a government deriving its authority
and power from one source, and pervading by a uniform
policy the different tribes comprised in the nation.

Notwithstanding the effects which these causes might be
expected to produce, it will appear that the distinguishing
usages of the nation pervade every part of the island.
Thus all practise circumcision, but the ceremonies attend-
ing it are varied, All practise trial by ordeal, but the

HISTORY OF MADAGASCAR. 147

ordeal itself, and the mode of its administration, differ. All
employ the sikidy, or divination, but have different modes
of working it. The same division of the year into twelve
moons is universal, but the moons are designated by
different names, one class of names being used by the inha-
bitants of the coast, another by those of the interior. All
have the singular and remarkakle practice of observing one
day in the week as more sacred, favoured of the gods, or
more lucky, than the rest : some, however, regard Friday
as that day, others Saturday, and others Sunday. These
instances are sufficient to shew that a description of the
manners and customs of the inhabitants of one portion of
the island will be, in all its essential features, applicable
to the whole.

Besides the causes already assigned for this general
uniformity in the usages of the distinct races of inhabitants,
that uniformity has undoubtedly often been preserved, and
the usages themselves in many instances perpetuated, by
that aversion to change which operates so powerfully in all
nations under despotic and weak governments, with which
it is a chief maxim of policy to perpetuate, unaltered from
age to age, the manners and habits of the people. To think
or act otherwise than their ancestors have thought and
acted for them, would manifest an independence of mind
and action alarming to the despot by whom they may be
governed, and would evince an amount of intelligence
that in these circumstances has rarely been obtained, and
has but seldom been deemed, by the people themselves,
either desirable or practicable.

As education elevates the mind, and enlarges the range
of thought and sentiment, and as knowledge and civilization
advance in the country, some of these observances will
gradually sink into desuetude, and in a slight degree there

l 2

148

HISTORY OF MADAGASCAR.

is reason to believe a change is already in progress in those
parts of the country where foreigners have been accustomed
to reside or visit.

In noticing the manners and customs of the Malagasy, we
commence with their habits and usages in social life, and
direct our attention to the circumstances of their infancy,
childhood, and youth.

In this department of their manners and customs, there
are many observances peculiar and interesting, blended
with others that excite intense and very mingled feelings.
We behold much that is grateful to a humane and an
enlightened mind, as well as unusual in what is generally
termed barbarous or uncivilized society, with much that is
so repulsive to every dictate of humanity and virtue, that
the union of practices so opposite among the same people
presents an anomaly in human society as remarkable as it
is distressing.

Thus, in regard to their offspring in general, the Malagasy
are fond of children ; to have a numerous family, is a source
of satisfaction to the parents, and of honourable esteem in
the community. It is, however, a source of satisfaction far
from being general, as few, comparatively speaking, have
large families, and a far greater number are strangers to the
happiness of being parents, than in more civilized society.
This is probably to be ascribed, in a great degree, to the
gross immorality that prevails among all classes from early
youth, and is the source of so much of their depravity and
suffering.

In those families, however, wherein the enjoyments of
parentage are known, as the period approaches at which a
Malagasy wife expects to become a mother, she not only
takes additional care of herself, " as nature dictates," but is
encouraged to do so by the prevailing dispositions and

HISTORY OF MADAGASCAR.

149

usages of the people. The husband, under these circum-
stances, excepting where cruelty and vice have brutalized
his nature, is also more than usually attentive and kind,*
and, influenced by the fond emotions which the anticipation
of parental affection excites, a number of little preparations
are made to indicate the tenderness with which the infant
will be welcomed, and to meet the exigencies of the occa-
sion.

As the period of accouchement draws near, a temporary
apartment is prepared within the dwelling-house, and near
the fire-place, by fixing posts in the floor, which is of earth,
and forming partitions by fastening thick mats to these posts;
a space sufficiently large for the purpose designed is thus
enclosed, the chief furniture of which consists of a mattress
of straw placed on the floor, a brisk fire is at the same time
kept up within the houes, but on the outside of this apart-
ment, in connexion with these preparations. A short time
before her confinement, the female undergoes a ceremony of
purification by her intended nurse, as essential to her safety,
and feasting is a general accompaniment of this and other
preparatory observances, as it is in nearly every cere-
mony.

Practitioners (mpampivelona, t. e. those that cause to live,
midwives) are always females ; not that delicacy and
refinement are characteristic traits of the people, but
custom has established the rule that her own sex alone

There are, however, eases in which the heartless and sordid husband,
unwilling to bear the trifling expenses, or endure the slight inconvenience,
that may be occasioned by the confinement of his wife, and the support
and care of his child, publicly divorces her as soon as there is reason to
expect she will become a mother, even though there should not exist the
remotest suspicion of her fidelity ; and so debased are public morals, that
the laws sanction divorce for such a cause, and public feeling attaches no
odium to the conduct of the unfeeling husband.

150

HISTORY OF MADAGASCAR.

should be present in " the hour of nature's sorrow." Un-
qualified as these may be to render efficient aid in any
critical exigency, the season is fatal to but few of the Mala-
gasy mothers. The instances in which there is any devia-
tion from the ordinary course of nature, or in which the
life of the infant has become extinct before its entrance into
the world, are but rare ; and though on these occasions
enlightened scientific aid might very frequently avert any
serious results, the death of the mother generally ensues.

The birth of a child is in general considered as an
occasion of rejoicing to the parents and relations; and
the feeling is extended in proportion to the rank or station
of the parties. Among the pretended demonstrations of
joy on the birth of a child, a custom established by long
usage formerly prevailed, so characteristic of a barbarous
and licentious people, so repugnant to every feeling of
decency, that anything beyond the most brief allusion
would be disgusting, yet a slight reference to it seems
essential to fidelity. An occasion for its manifestation
occurred on the birth of the late king's daughter.

The town, by reason of the scenes which the streets and
lanes almost everywhere exhibited, appeared like one vast
brothel, and the period was called, Andro-tsy-maty, L e.
a time in which the law could not condemn, or in which
death could not be inflicted. The death of three chief
nobles of high rank occurring at the time, Mr. Hastie,
the British agent at the capital, in remonstrating with the
king against the grossness of these proceedings, alluded,
apparently with good effect, to the death of the chiefs, as
perhaps designed to shew the displeasure of the Almighty
against such wickedness. Mr. Hastie also expressed his
utter detestation of the scenes of abomination then exhi-
bited, and stated, that if it was ever permitted again,

HISTORY OF MADAGASCAR.

151

it should be published in the Mauritius Gazette, where-
by it would be known throughout Europe and the
world — that the people of England would exclaim, " What
a brute of a king is Iladama ! — that they would not allow
their agent or representative to remain any longer in such
a country — and that he should be recalled. The love of fame
was one of Kadama's strongest passions, and it is said, that
on this occasion he was affected to tears, and took the most
prompt and energetic measures for preventing the recur-
rence of practices which he had thus been led to consider
as exposing him to contempt and shame.

On the queen's entry into the capital with her infant,
a fortnight afterwards, when similar outrages were expected,
a strict prohibition, issued by the king, was very generally
regarded ; two culprits only were brought before the judges
the next morning, and, being found guilty of disobeying the
order of the king, were immediately executed.

After the birth of an infant, the relatives and friends of
the mother visit her, and offer their congratulations. The
infant also receives salutations, in form resembling the
following : " Saluted be the offspring given of God ! — may
the child live long ! — may the child be favoured so as to
possess wealth !" Presents are also made to the attendants
in the household, and sometimes a bullock is killed on the
occasion, and distributed among the members of the family.
Presents of poultry, fuel, money, &c, are at times also
sent by friends to the mother. A piece of meat is usually
cut into thin slices, and suspended at some distance from
the floor by a cord attached to the ceiling or roof of the
house. This is called the Kitoza, and is intended for the
mother. A fire is kept in the room, day and night, frequently
for a week after the birth of the child.

At the expiration of that period, the infant, arrayed in

152

HISTORY OF MADAGASCAR.

the best clothing that can be obtained, is carried out of the
house by some person whose parents are both still living,
and then taken back to the mother. In being carried out
and in, the child must be twice carefully lifted over the fire,
which is placed near the door. Should the infant be a boy,
the axe, large knife, and spear, generally used in the family,
must be taken out at the same time, with any implements of
building that may be in the house : silver chains, of native
manufacture, are also given as presents, or used in these
ceremonies, for which no particular reason is assigned.
The implements are perhaps used chiefly as emblems of the
occupations in which it is expected the infant will engage
when it arrives at maturer years ; and the whole may be
regarded as expressing the hopes cherished of his activity,
wealth, and enjoyments.

One of the first acts of the father, or a near relative, is
to report the birth of the child to the native divines or
astrologers, who are required to work the sikidy for the
purpose of ascertaining and declaring its destiny ; and when
the destiny is declared to be favourable, the child is
nurtured with that tenderness and affection which nature
inspires, and the warmest gratulations are tendered by the
friends of the parents.

The proportion of the sexes appears to be equal at birth,
though, in consequence of the destructive ravages of war,
it is supposed by the Missionaries, that in some of the pro-
vinces there are, among the free portion of the inhabitants,
five, and in others three women to one man. The adult
slave population presents a more equal number of both
sexes. The children, particularly those of the Hovas, are
said to be exceedingly fair at their birth, and to assume
but very gradually the dark or olive tinge of those in
riper years.

HISTORY OF MADAGASCAR.

At the expiration of the second or third month from the
birth of a first child, on a day declared to be good (lucky) by
the sikidy, a peculiar kind of ceremony takes place, called
"scrambling." The friends and relatives of the child
assemble ; a portion of the fat taken from the hump on the
back of an ox is minced in a rice-pan, cooked, and mixed
up with a quantity of rice, milk, honey, and a sort of grass
called voampamoa ; a lock of the infant's hair is also cast
into the above melange ;* and the whole being thoroughly
well mixed in a rice-pan, which is held by the youngest
female of the family, a general rush is made towards the
pan, and a scramble for its contents takes place, especially
by the women, as it is supposed that those who are fortunate
enough to obtain a portion may confidently cherish the hope
of becoming mothers. Bananas, lemons, and sugarcane are
also scrambled for, under the belief that a similar result
may be anticipated.

The ceremony of scrambling,, however, only takes place
with a first-born child. The head of the mother is decorated
during the ceremonial with silver chains, while the father
carries the infant, if a boy, and some ripe bananas, on his
back. The rice-pan used on the occasion becomes in their
estimation sacred by the service, and must not be taken
out of the house during three subsequent days, otherwise
the virtue of those observances is supposed to be lost

With regard to names, the parents bestow such as they
think proper on their offspring ; but usually among the
Malagasy, as among most uncivilized tribes, the names are
descriptive, and are bestowed without any ceremonies.

* A lock of hair is first cut on the left side of the child's head, and
called sonia ratsy, " the evil lock;" this must be thrown away, in order to
avert calamity : another lock is then cut, on the right side, this is called
sonia soa, " the fortunate lock," and is used as above described.

154

HISTORY OF MADAGASCAR.

The names first given are by many retained through life,
but are by others exchanged for names descriptive of some
particular circumstance, relationship, or event. There are
also certain generic names applied to children, for which
they often receive others in after years; thus, for example, a
boy is called Ikoto, or Rakota, " the lad ;" a female, Rake-
taka, " the girl." The first-born female in a family is
generally designated Ramatoa, " eldest female," and the
last Ra-fara-vavy, " last born female." The first-born male,
Lahimatoa, "first-male," and the last Ra-fara-lahy, or
Andriampaivo, or Lahi-zandrina " the younger ;" any
female born between the first and the last is called Ra-
ivo " the intermediate," and any male between the eldest and
the youngest, Andrianivo "intermediate male," or Lah-ivo.
As these terms respectively signify the circumstances
stated, the children do not necessarily take the name of
the parents, and from this cause also, almost every family
in a town has children of the same names. Parents some-
times assume the name of their children, especially should
they rise to distinction in public service, as Rai-ni-Mahay,
" Father of Mahay," Rai-ni-Maka, " Father of Maka."

In connexion with the above usages, referring to the
periods of infancy and childhood among the Malagasy, it
is requisite to notice others of an opposite and melancholy
character — the destruction of life, and the practice of
infanticide. In families above the lowest grade in society,
as little expense is incurred in providing for the mainte-
nance of children, and but little trouble occasioned by
additions to the domestic circle, children generally find a
welcome, even though a merciless and gloomy superstition,
professing to divine the future destiny of the unconscious,
unoffending infants, should, shortly after their entrance into
the world, require them to be destroyed. It is not, however,

HISTORY OF MADAGASCAR.

155

after birth alone that the destruction of life takes place.
This species of murder is effected at times for the purpose
of avoiding the disgrace to which the violation of moral
propriety would expose the guilty parties, and in some
instances from the same shameful motives which occasionally
operated formerly among the natives of the South Sea
islands — the fear of having too large a family : the destruc-
tion of life before birth, from the latter consideration, occurs,
however, but rarely, and in general a numerous offspring is a
source of much satisfaction. Notwithstanding this, the hor-
rible crime of child-murder has prevailed from time imme-
morial, and in some parts of the country is perpetrated still.

During the reign of Radama, the inhuman practice of
infanticide received a powerful and salutary check, espe-
cially near the seat of government, and within the range of
his personal influence. He presented an instance of
opposition to it in his own family, as an example, and
humanely promulgated laws prohibiting, under the severest
penalties, a practice alike opposed to the highest interest
of the nation and the best and strongest feelings of
humanity. He manifested on this occasion the strong and
shrewd faculty of wisdom with which he was so eminently
endowed, and proceeded to the accomplishment of his
object in a manner of all others most adapted to remove
the superstitious prejudices, and engage the assistance of
the parents themselves. This barbarous murder was only
committed on those infants whose fate the pagan astrolo-
gers of the country declared required it. Radama, in
prohibiting their destruction, declared that all the infants
doomed to death by the astrologers became his, and that
whoever destroyed them destroyed his children, and should
suffer death for the murder of the children of the king.

156

HISTORY OF MADAGASCAR.

This enactment not only furnished the parents with
abundant ground for disobedience to the dictate of the
diviners, but, by giving to their offspring the flattering
designation of the king's children, gratified their vanity,
and secured their co-operation. During the reign of
Radama, the practice was generally discontinued, except in
Imamo, where, in surrendering their independence and
acknowledging his supremacy, the inhabitants stipulated
for the unmolested continuance of this unnatural crime,
according to the custom of their ancestors. The extensive
revival of the ancient superstitions of the country, and of
this among the rest, since the death of Radama, has not
diminished, but increased the number thus prematurely
hurried to the grave.

The superstitions of the Malagasy lead them to regard
certain days and hours as unlucky, and for an infant to be
born at such times is considered fatal. These periods are
calculated and declared by a class of men called Panandro,
" astrologers." To these the relations or the parent of
a new-born infant repair almost immediately after it has
entered the world, to learn from them the vintana, or des-
tiny of the child, as if they could not give free current to
the tide of their joyous and affectionate feelings until they
had ascertained whether those feelings must be suppressed,
and the object of their kindling emotions be recklessly
torn from their embrace, or whether they might venture to
express towards it their tenderness and love.

In some cases it is considered sufficient to make a pre-
scribed offering with a special view to averting the evil
of the child's destiny. The parents' hopes being by this
confirmed, they return to indulge in the overflowings of
their joy over the dear object of which a murderous super-

HISTORY OF MADAGASCAR.

stition has not deprived them. In other cases there must
be exposure to death, or death must be inflicted. *

The decisions of the panandro are three-fold : either a
faditra, or offering, must be presented, to remove evil ; the
child must be exposed to death, by being placed in the
narrow path at the entrance to a village or a cattle-fold ;
or it must be put to death. When the vintana or destiny
is declared to be favourable, no ceremony follows. If
the decision be unfavourable, (a not unfrequent case,) there
is ground for but very feeble hopes of the infant's life ; yet
still the affectionate parents fondly cherish these hopes as
long as there is the least prospect of their being realized.

The tendency of all the systems of absurd and degrading
superstition which enslave and afflict mankind, is to tri-
umph in fiendlike despotism over the first, the strongest,
and tenderest dictates of humanity ; yet, perhaps, amidst the
various exhibitions of its malignant domination, it does not
unfold a scene of more affecting wretchedness than is
presented on these occasions. An infant, a new-born, per-
fectly helpless, unconscious infant, smiling perhaps in
innocence, is laid on the ground in the narrow entrance to a
village, or a fold, through which there is scarcely room
enough for cattle to pass ; several cattle are then driven
violently in, and are made to pass over the spot in which
the child is placed, while the parents with agonizing
feelings stand by waiting the result.

If the oxen pass over without injuring the infant, the
omen is propitious, the powerful and evil destiny is removed,
the parents may without apprehension embrace their
offspring, and cherish it as one rescued from destruction.

* Further explanation respecting the calculation of destiny will be given
in a subsequent part of the work.

158

HISTORY OF MADAGASCAR.

But should the delicate, frail, and tender body of the help-
less victim be mangled and crushed to death by the rugged
feet of the oxen, which is most frequently the case, the
parents return to mourn in bitterness of grief their loss,
with no other consolation than that which the monstrous
absurdities of their delusions supply — that, had their beloved
infant survived, it would have been exposed to the influ-
ence of that destiny which now required its exposure to
destruction.

Distressing, however, as this is, it is in some respects less
so than the practice which remains to be noticed. This
refers to the instances in which it is declared that exposure
will not be sufficient, that there is no possibility of avoid-
ing the doom pronounced, and that death must be inflicted.
No labour would secure exemption for the hapless victim ;
no offering or sacrifice could propitiate the powers on
whom its destiny depended, and avert its destruction ; no
treasures could purchase for it permission to live ; and those
who otherwise would have cherished it with the tenderest
affection, and have fostered it with unceasing care through
infancy and childhood, are reduced to the dire necessity of
extinguishing that life which the dictates of nature would
have taught them to regard as equally precious with their
own. When this inhuman decision of the astrologers has
been announced, the death of the innocent victim is usually
effected by suffocation ; the rice-pan, a circular wooden
utensil, slightly concave on one side and hollow on the
other, is generally employed. It is filled with water, and
the infant is held with its face downwards in the water, till
life becomes extinct ; sometimes a piece of cloth is placed
on the child's mouth, to render its suffocation more
speedy. The remains of the infant thns murdered, are
buried on the south side of the parents' house, that being

HISTORY OF MADAGASCAR.

159

superstitiously regarded as the part appropriated to what
is ill-omened and fatal. The parents then rub a small
quantity of red earth into their clothes, and afterwards
shake them, as if to avert or shake off from themselves
the evil supposed to attend their slight and transient contact
with that which had been doomed to destruction.

Another mode of perpetrating this unnatural deed is
by taking the infant to a retired spot in the neighbourhood
of the village, digging a grave sufficiently large to receive
it, pouring in a quantity of water slightly warmed, putting
a piece of cloth upon the infant's mouth, placing it in the
grave, filling this up with earth, and leaving the helpless
child, thus buried alive, a memorial of their own affecting
degradation, and the relentless barbarism of their gloomy
superstition — a trophy of the dominion of the destroyer of
our race, and a painfully conclusive illustration of the truth
of that word which declares that the dark places of the
earth are full of the habitations of cruelty.

These heart-rending transactions are generally per-
formed by the parents themselves, or some of the nearest
kindred of the family, frequently by the father, while the
mother, anxious to press her infant to her bosom as long as
possible, holds it while preparations for the savage deed
are going forward, and when it is taken from her arms,
to be consigned thus prematurely to the earth, gives vent
to her anguish and distress by lamenting and weeping, in
which she is joined by her female kindred and com-
panions, who return with her in sad procession to her
dwelling.

It is affecting to contemplate the extent to which the
unnatural practice of child-murder prevails in almost every
nation in a state of heathenism, whether learned or illi-
terate, civilized or barbarous, and to notice the resemblance

IGO

HISTORY OF MADAGASCAR.

in motive and end, as well as in the manner of effecting it,
which appear among communities the most remote, and in
many respects dissimilar, from each other.

The South Sea islanders seem to have been much more
addicted to infanticide than the Malagasy ; the chief cause
of its perpetration by the former was pride, and their
abominable licentiousness ; to some extent, however, they
were influenced by the motives which operated on the
latter — the sanctions of their heartless superstitions, and the
desire to avoid the trouble of taking care of their offspring.

The mode also of accomplishing their purpose was fre-
quently the same, but there was one peculiar feature in
the infanticide of the South Sea islanders, from which the
Malagasy were exempt; among the latter, no distinction
appears to have been made on account of sex ; both appear
to have been alike exposed to the merciless decisions of
the astrologers. Among the former, the relentless deed
was regulated frequently by considerations that tended to
destroy the female sex, and add to the atrocity of the
crime. A far grearer number of females than of males were
destroyed by the islanders, and often the circumstance
which decided the guilty parties in the accomplishment of
their purpose, before undetermined, was the fact that the
innocent victim was a female.

The infant which a barbarous and sanguinary super-
stition has spared to the Malagasy parents, is cherished
with indulgent tenderness ; its aliment is supplied, with
exceedingly rare exceptions, from its mother's breast ; and
it is generally nursed by a grandmother, or some other
relative. The mothers in Madagascar often suckle their
children for several years ; the latter thus continue " chil-
dren at the breast" after they are able to walk, and may
often be seen running after their mothers, and, without

HISTORY OF MADAGASCAR.

161

any hesitation, calling out and asking for their accustomed
indulgence.

Nothing can exceed the affection with which the infant
is treated by its parents, and other members of the family ;
the indulgence is more frequently carried to excess than
otherwise; and it is pleasing to record the testimony of
those who have dwelt among the people, that instances
are numerous, in which the affection of the parents has
been reciprocated by the children, many of whom have
been known to love and honour their parents even to
old age.

The fathers generally carry their little boys on their
shoulders, where the latter are seated erect, and held by
the father's hand. Mothers carry their children, accord-
ing to the usages of the country, on their backs, or at
their side, resting on their hip ; and a custom prevails in
the island, which marks in a pleasing manner the operation
of filial affection ; — children are in the habit of occasionally
presenting their mothers with a piece of money called
fofon-damosina, " the remembrance of the back," as a
sort of grateful acknowledgment for the kindness of the
parent in having so often borne the infant on the back.

Though filial affection is rarely seen where enlightened
and judicious parental discipline is not uniformly mani-
fested, the latter is almost unknown in many parts of
Madagascar, and is even, where it prevails, exceedingly
lax. The children are not subjected to the least restraint,
but are, as soon as able to act for themselves, allowed to
follow their own inclinations, except so far as their daily
wants render them dependent upon their parents, by whom
the wishes or caprice of the child is rather humoured than
resisted or controlled. Lax, however, as parental restraint
certainly is, continued stubbornness and disobedience is
i. M

1G2

HISTORY OV MADAGASCAR.

sometimes severely punished. The power of parents over the
liberty of their child, is universally acknowledged; and
parents are permitted by the judges to sell disobedient and
stubborn children into slavery — instances of which have
occurred.

Whatever jealousies may render the wives of one hus-
band miserable, or whatever envying and strife may exist
between the children of the wife and those of the concubines,
it is pleasing to contemplate the Malagasy home as one that
is imbittered by few quarrels between parents and children.
The former maintain the authority of their relation, so far
as it is exercised, without sufficiently, or, in many cases,
at all curbing the early development of youthful pas-
sions : the children, however, are taught from their infancy
to cherish respect for their parents, and the aged, as one
of the first obligations in society.

The amusements of the children are few, and resemble
on a smaller scale those of the adults. Bull-fighting is
one of those held in highest estimation among the latter ;
and the children spend many of their hours in cruelly
setting beetles to fight, and in watching them while em-
ployed in destroying each other. The period devoted to
the pastimes of childhood is but short, and the boys and
girls are accustomed, at a very early age, frequently before
the sixth or seventh year is completed, to engage in the
occupations of their parents respectively.

At the ages above referred to, viz. six or seven years, the
girls may be seen fetching water for domestic uses, and
the boys assisting their fathers in agricultural pursuits,
carrying rice-plants, manioc, sugarcanes, and other pro-
ductions for the field, or bearing towards their villages
bundles of dried grass, &c. used as fuel at home. In
Imerina many about that age were, while the schools were

HISTORY OF MADAGASCAR.

patronized by the government, placed under instruction,
and when approaching what is deemed among the people
the age of maturity, viz. from fourteen to eighteen years,
great numbers were taken into the army. Where this is
not the case, as soon as a youth is able to serve the
purposes of the government, he is expected to form his
own domestic establishment, to perform his share of all
public services, and bear his portion of the taxes, and other
public burdens of the people. When this takes place, if
the lands of the father are sufficient, a section is given to
the son as his portion ; but when the possessions of the
father will not admit of this, land is purchased for the son,
usually at a low rate, the price seldom exceeding six or
seven dollars per acre.

The practice of betrothing children at a very early age
prevails to a great extent in Madagascar ; the parents fre-
quently make an arrangement for their children with a
view to their marriage, before the latter are capable of
thinking for themselves on the subject. These are consi-
dered as voa-fofo, " betrothed" or " pledged." In other
cases, young persons think and judge for themselves.
Domestic manners in Madagascar do not impose the
restraints usual in most Oriental countries ; very frequent
opportunities therefore occur in the social intercourse of
families, for young persons of both sexes to see each
other, and, as elsewhere, love and courtship precede
matrimony. Usually, however, such alliances are formed
on the arrangements of the parents, and not unfrequently
through their influence. Many of both sexes are married
at the age of twelve or fourteen. These sometimes con-
tinue to live with their parents, though they more frequently
form separate establishments for themselves. Shortly after
the ages above specified, they frequently become parents.

m 2

164 HISTORY OF MADAGASCAR.

The ceremonies in marriage are neither numerous nor
imposing, neither is the bond indissoluble.

Certain ranks are not permitted under any circumstances
to intermarry, and affinity to the sixth generation also
forbids intermarriage, yet the principal restrictions against
intermarriages respect descendants on the female side.
Collateral branches on the male side are permitted in most
cases to intermarry, on the observance of a slight but
prescribed ceremony, which is supposed to remove the
impediment or disqualification arising out of consanguinity.
This preference for preserving uncontaminated the female
line, and the custom of tracing the genealogy of the sove-
reign and the nobles by the female, and not by the male
line, involves a censure on the existing morals of the country ;
since they proceed on the supposition of its being impos-
sible in any given case to ascertain with certainty the male
parent of a child, or, that parentage is more easily and
obviously identified on the mother's than on the father's
side.*

Among the parties prohibited from intermarrying, may
be noticed,

First, as to caste, grade, or rank : —

1. A noble may not marry a Hova.

2. A Hova may not marry a Zaza-hova, i. e. a Hova
reduced to slavery.

3. A Zaza-hova may not marry an Andevo, i. e. slave ;
viz., a slave not originally a Hova.

A freeman cannot marry a slave, but he can raise her
to a state of freedom by redeeming her, and then he may

* An unmarried queen is supposed to have the right of having a family
by whom she may think proper. The children are recognized as legiti-
mately royal by their relation to the mother, and no question made as to
paternity.

HISTORY OF MADAGASCAR.

marry her. He may afterwards divorce her, but in that
case she continues free.*

Secondly, as to consanguinity : —

1. Brother and sister by the same father and mother.

2. Children of a brother and sister by the same parents,
(unless the ceremony, already referred to, be performed.)

3. Grandchildren of a brother and sister by the same
parents, (under a similar restriction,)

Their descendants may intermarry ad libitum.

4. The children of two sisters by the same mother cannot
intermarry, nor their descendants, viz. : —

5. Grandchildren.

6. Great-grandchildren.

7. Great-great-grandchildren.

8 . Great- great-great-grandchildren.

These two last are respectively called Zafindokalika
and Zafimpaladia ; i. e. " descendants of the knee," and
"descendants of the sole of the foot."

Mothers in Madagascar being usually anxious to have
their daughters married while the latter are very young,
most connexions of this kind, therefore, which take place
among young persons, may be appropriately designated early
marriages. Sometimes the parents give with their daughter
a dowry consisting of cattle, slaves, or money; which, in
the event of a divorce, is claimed by them on her behalf.
This, however, is not always the case, as the bridegroom
occasionally, when his circumstances or those of his parents
are more affluent than those of the bride, gives such portion
to his wife as may have been previously agreed upon
between his friends and her parents. .

The ceremonies observed on entering into the marriage
relation are not uniform, though always exceedingly simple:

* Exodus xxi. 7, 10; Dent. xxi. 11, 14.

HISTORY OF MADAGASCAR.

they depend, in a measure, on the rank and wealth of the
parties. Feasting generally accompanies every Malagasy
marriage. When the preliminaries are determined, and the
time fixed, viz., a good or lucky day, according to the
sikidy, the relatives of the bride and bridegroom meet at
the houses of the parents of the respective parties. All
are attired in their best apparel, and decorated with their
gayest ornaments. At the appointed hour, the relatives
or friends of the bridegroom accompany him to the house
of the bride. These pay or receive the dowry, which being
settled, he is welcomed by the bride as her future husband;
they eat together, are recognized by the senior members of
the family as husband and wife ; a benediction is pro-
nounced upon them, and a prayer offered to God, that
they may have a numerous offspring, abundance of cattle,
many slaves, great wealth, and increase the honour, of
their respective families. They then repair to the house
of the parents or friends of the bridegroom, and again eat
together, when similar benedictions are pronounced by the
senior members of the family, or the head man of the village,
who is usually invited to the ceremony.

The nuptial bond is, in some instances, now regarded
as complete ; general feasting ensues, after which the par-
ties return to their respective homes, and the newly-mar-
ried couple to the residence prepared for them.

But if, as is generally the case, the houses in which the
parties have met is below the hill on which their village
is built, the bride is placed on a sort of chair under a
canopy, and borne on men's shoulders up the sides of the
hill to the centre of the village. Occasionally the bride-
groom is carried in the same manner. The relatives and
friends of the parties follow in procession, clapping their
hands, and singing, as the bearers ascend. On reaching

HISTORY OF MADAGASCAR.

167

the village, they halt at what is called the parent-house, or
residence of the officer of the government; a hasina, or
piece of money, is given to the attending officer for
the sovereign, the receiving of which is considered a legal
official ratification of the engagement, as the marriage
cannot afterwards be annulled, except by a legal act of
divorce in the presence of witnesses. No ring, or other
emblem of the married state, is used on such occasions, or
worn afterwards; nor is there any badge by which the
married may be distinguished from the unmarried women
in Madagascar, when their husbands are at home : but
during the absence of their husbands, especially in the
service of government a necklace, of silver rings or beads
or braided hair, is worn, to denote that they are married,
and that consequently their persons are sacred. Thus
the wives of the officers composing the late embassy to
England were distinguished during the absence of their
husbands.

The early marriages of the Malagasy are attended with
painful and disastrous effects to the female; especially
those contracted in consequence of betrothments arranged
by the parents, totally irrespective of the inclinations of the
parties themselves, and often before they were able to
understand the nature of the engagement, or feel either
preference for or aversion to those with whom they were
pledged to sustain one of the most binding and sacred
relations of life. The consequence is, the unhappy wife
soon ceases to please, the affections of the husband are
fixed on others, and unfaithfulness or divorce is the result.
Notwithstanding this, it is stated by those who have had
the best opportunities of studying native society, that a
number may be found faithfully and devotedly attached to
each other through life. Instances of this kind, however,

168

HISTORY OF MADAGASCAR.

are comparatively rare : and concubinage, or polygamy,
with all its inevitable train of miseries, prevails very
generally.

The very term by which polygamy is designated in the
native language implies the evils of which it is the fruit-
ful source — famporafesana, i. e., " the means of causing
enmity ;"* as if referring to the interminable jealousies and
hostilities created among the several wives of one husband.
With all its admitted and numerous evils, polygamy, how-
ever, exists under the sanction of the highest examples and
authorities a native can appeal to. Every monarch is
complimented as having twelve wives: and most of the
nobles or chieftains, who can afford to maintain a plurality
of wives, deem it essential to their rank and honour, if not
to their happiness, to take more than one wife.

The only law to regulate polygamy seems to be, that no
man may take twelve wives excepting the sovereign. And
while very many have but one, the cases are, however,
comparatively few, in which a man has more than three or
four. Custom has established various rules as to the manner
in which a husband takes an additional wife. The following
sketch is given as an illustration. It will not strictly
and literally apply in every individual case, but such course
of proceeding, or something extremely analogous to it, is
usually followed.

The husband disposed to take an additional wife, selects
his favourite, obtains her consent privately, without the
knowledge of his wife. He then communicates his intention
to the latter, probably at first in apparent jest ; he afterwards
tells her plainly, calling her, Rafotsy, (a title of respect,)

* Rafy, signifies enmity; Rafy-lahy, an enemy; Mamporafy, to cause
enmity ; Mpamporafy, a causer of enmity, a polygamic ; Famporafesana
the cause of enmity, polygamy.

HISTORY OF MADAGASCAR.

169

you are to have a younger sister. I shall still make you
happy, adds the husband ; here is a present for you — five
dollars, 'tis a large sum.'*

When the money is mentioned, the woman finds the affair
is earnest, and then objects : " No, I shall not be one of
two wives, let me be divorced." The husband employs
pacific expressions, endeavours to abate her anger, and to
obtain her consent ; he assures her of his affection, and that
he can by no means part with her, and expresses his
astonishment that she could talk of a divorce. Still with-
holding her consent, he reminds her that it is the man's
prerogative to have many wives, and a fine large house built
on a hill, to remain there as a monument of his respecta-
bility. " Those who are inferior," he tells her, " wish to
become equal, and those who are equal to become superior,
that he who has one wishes for two, and he who has two
wishes for three."

The poor wife now finding it best to be pacified, says
that she is so, and replies, " Well, that is sufficient, since
you are determined on the measure. 'Tis like the old
proverb, ' Where the hill is long, there is room for thinking.'
Since I am tired of refusing, I have consented ; yet I wish
you to consider, that I prefer speaking to you face to face
rather than complaining of you to others. I shall not ask you
to give me all I want, but I ask you, as pledge of your attach-
ment to me, to give me a slave whom I may give to any
one I please ; then you may take any one you like as my
junior, whether from a near or a distant tribe." A little
bargaining takes place about the demand for a slave, and
the wife repeats, that she merely asks, lest her children
should cease to love her if she were poor. The husband
then adds. " Here is half a slave for you,* but you are not

* That is, a right over half his services or half his value, if sold or redeemed.

170

HISTORY OF MADAGASCAR.

to give him away if you continue beloved by your
children.

These preliminaries arranged, the parents, if living, and
relations of both parties, are invited to assemble, and the
husband's brother usually states the terms of the agreement.
" You are all invited, that you may be informed of the pre-
sent made to Rafotsy, namely, the half slave." The husband's
father then adds, " half the slave belongs to my daughter-
in-law. Do you agree to that ? Half a slave, for which you
have not toiled nor laboured — this is thine." The father,
mother, and relatives of the wife express their assent, and
compliment the husband. The husband rejoins, "I am
pleased with what you have said, and now I shall add to
the donation. How much ? Three dollars." All parties
consent, unanimity prevails, Rafotsy herself, won by so
much kindness and liberality, remarks, " That will do, I
seem to have a father indeed to my children." All the
family join then in some exclamations of thanks, and call on
god, and heaven and earth, sun and moon, east, west,
and north, and deceased relations, to bless the man and
his wife.

The husband then adds, " I shall give you all notice of a
day when I intend to marry my second wife, lest you should
say, Why have you been so silent, and done it so suddenly,
without telling us ?" A lucky day being accordingly fixed
on, it is mentioned by the husband's brother, and the party
breaks up with expressions of mutual good-will.

The first wife generally makes additional efforts to
obtain a further donation from her husband, and often
succeeds.

On the day fixed for introducing one wife to the other,
the head people of the village are requested to act as the
inter-messengers. They proceed to the house of the in-

HISTORY OF MADAGASCAR.

171

tended bride, who is called the vady kely, " the little wife."*
" We have come," say they, " for the young lass — open the
door." The lineage and ancestry of both parties are then
related, and the donation of clothes sent being presented, the
parties eat together as a token of friendship. The husband's
brother brings the new wife, part of a sheep having been
previously presented to her, and another part to the father
of the first w ife, with an apology that it is a mere trifle, but
all that can be afforded. The new wife is then taken to the
house of her intended husband, and is met in the court, west
of the house,f by the husband and wife. This public situa-
tion is chosen, that all may witness the engagement, and
that the husband may address the spectators, saying, " The
terms of this marriage-covenant are half a slave and thirteen
dollars." Eight had been named — five at first, and three
afterwards — the rest is expended in clothing and feasting.

In some instances, money is taken to the sovereign, or
his representative; and when this is received, the engage-
ment is considered as ratified or legalized. The spectators
then leave ; and the polygamist, with both his wives, either
continue to live in the same house, or a separate establish-
ment is formed for the new wdfe. Generally, too, the
custom obtains of the husband's soliciting a small portion
of his first wife's rice-ground, which he presents to his
vady-kely, and in return gives her another piece sometime
afterwards, as a compensation.

Polygamy here, as elsewhere, is demonstrated to be
a system of evils. It is the chief source of nearly all
the domestic disputes and jealousies existing among the
Malagasy : wives become jealous of one another, and the
husband suffers from the jealousy of all.

* A name given to every wife a man has, except the first,
t The front of the house, as the door faces the west.

172

HISTORY OF MADAGASCAR.

The children by different wives are frequently the sub-
jects of secret heart-burnings, or in open variance give vent
to their malevolent feelings and recriminating animosities.
Divorces are multiplied, and, with them, envy, hatred, and
interminable family resentments. Property is also wasted,
claimants are multiplied, and litigations frequent. In a
word, polygamy is a curse to the land, and its final extinc-
tion is a consummation most ardently to be desired by
all who prefer peace to wrath, affection to bitterness,
domestic comfort to domestic strife, and christian virtues
to the jealousy, malice, and uncharitableness of the excited
and turbulent passions of depraved human nature.

One great evil consequent on polygamy is the frequency
of divorce. This may naturally be expected where poly-
gamy is sanctioned and encouraged. The former may
indeed be permitted under some circumstances where the
latter is not, as in European countries, but the latter so
necessarily produces occasions of the former, that it per-
haps could not exist without it.

The term used for it in the native language is fisaoram-
bady. The verb misaotra, " to divorce," strictly signifies to
thank or bless, and is used even as an expression of thanks-
giving to the Divine Being. Its use in forming the
compound word as above, (fisaorana and vady) seems to
imply a benediction on the wife, thanking her for the past,
and so gently dismissing her as one whose services are no
longer required.

The immediate causes of divorce are numerous, and often
very trivial. One cause for which a wife is heartlessly
divorced has been already noticed ; besides this, if a wife
be cruel towards the step-children in a family, or children
by another wife, or children whom the husband may have
adopted, or if she be extravagant, or idle, or inattentive to

HISTORY OF MADAGASCAR.

173

her husband, or if she be suspected of infidelity to her
husband, or of gadding about too much from house to
house, or of receiving attention from the other sex, or if
she accuse her husband justly or unjustly of infidelity
towards his lawful wife or wives, or if she refuses her
consent to his taking another wife — in all such cases she
is divorced, and frequently on occasions of far less import-
ance.

Usually when a dispute has taken place between the
husband and wife, and a reconciliation has not been effected,
the wife runs away to her parents or relations. Unless the
husband be desirous of a separation, he employs persuasive
means to induce her to return. In the event of not suc-
ceeding, or the separation being wished for, he commissions
his brother or a friend to divorce her. Having obtained
an interview with the female, he desires her to call her
parents and relations, as he has some business to transact.
On their arrival, and the customary salutations having
passed, he announces the object of his visit, and sums it up
briefly by saying, " I am sent to divorce this child," &c. Then
addressing the woman, he says, " Your brother," (meaning
her husband, but now designating him by a relationship
which implies the impossibility of marriage,) "your brother
says there is no more dispute nor difference between us,
remember and count what property is your own, you
may receive your own share." The father of the woman
answers? "This is worthy of a husband; worthy of a
friend indeed : he does not impose on us. May he live
to grow old !"

With this the ceremony terminates, and the relations
afterwards fetch the share of property belonging to the
divorced party. The support and guardianship of the chil-
dren of the divorced wife are made the subjects of arrange-

174

HISTORY OF MADAGASCAR.

ment by the friends of the respective parties before the
separation is publicly announced; sometimes they are
divided, sometimes left with the relatives of the father,
at other times taken by those of the mother.

The woman is at liberty to marry again as soon as she
pleases, after the lapse of twelve days. Though, in the
instance mentioned, the divorced wife is permitted to
marry again after the lapse of twelve days, the divorcing
husband has, according to law, or usages which have equal
authority, the power of divorcing his wife in such a manner
as to prevent her ever marrying again. On these occasions
she is often treated personally with extreme cruelty, and,
during the formal process of being divorced, receives first
a black fowl, expressive, it is supposed, of the wish of her
husband that she may ever be to all others a repulsive
object ; second, a walking-stick, indicating that for the
future she is to have no home, but is to be an outcast on
the roads ; third, a small piece of money, signifying that she
is to be dependent on what is given by others ; and fourth,
a piece of white gun-wadding, to signify that she is to con-
tinue in that state till her hair is white with age.

A widow forfeits all claim to respectability of character,
if she marry within twelve months of her husband's decease,
and would, were she thus to act, be marked and shunned in
society.

Though the females in Madagascar are not reduced to the
humiliating state of degradation in which they are found
among some uncivilized portions of the human race, the
usages here noticed shew, that, as among all other com-
munities unblessed by the elevating and softening influence
of the gospel, she is far from being esteemed as the equal,
the companion of man, excepting in his humiliation and
disgrace. If the husband be guilty of any crime for which

HISTORY OF MADAGASCAR.

175

he is reduced to slavery, his wife, however innocent she
may have been, is also deprived of her liberty. Woman is
held in estimation chiefly as the creature of convenience to
man, and often suffers as the victim of his caprice and
ungoverned passion, or of his sordid and heartless avarice.
The state of native society in Madagascar, in reference to
the females, adds another to the already extended catalogue
of facts which shew the obligations of the sex to the chris-
tian religion, and prove that it is only where the principles
of divine revelation prevail, that woman is raised to the posi-
tion in the social relations of life, for which she was intended
and qualified by her Creator ; while the happy results that
have followed the partial diffusion of the principles of
Christianity, the introduction of christian marriage, among
the natives of this interesting country, as well as the choice
and abundant fruits in social peace and hallowed affection,
which they have brought forth among communities still less
civilized,* shew that they have lost none of their power to
refine, to elevate, and to enrich with the highest privileges
the female portion of every community in which they
prevail.

* The South Sea Islanders and some of the aborigines of South Africa.

176

HISTORY OF MADAGASCAR.

CHAP. VII.

The rite of circumcision — Appointment of the time for its observance —
Consecration of the vessel for the holy- water — Procession for bringing
the holy water and other requisites for the ceremony — Bull-baiting and
other amusements at the festival — Platting of baskets — Slaughter of a
sheep — Measuring the children — Planting the banana stem — Benedictions
pronounced on the children — Public addresses delivered to them — The
faditra, or offering to bear away evil — The strong water — Slaughter of the
red bullock — The father's address to the son while the rite is performing
— Conduct of the mothers on the occasion — Feasting at the close of the
ceremonies — The custom of forming brotherhoods by drinking of blood —
Parties who thus enter into solemn covenant — Symbols used — Form of
oath or engagement — The mouth of the heart— The drinking of each
other's blood — Extent to which the engagement is binding — Existence
of a similar custom in Borneo — Nature and operations of slavery— Hard
lot of the slave-mother— Mode of redemption from slavery — Bondsmen
of the government — Hospitality of Madagascar.

Before a youth is considered fit for the army, or capable of
rendering any service to the government, and hence before
any domestic establishment can be formed, he must undergo
a ceremony practised by many nations of the earth, and
variously estimated by different tribes — this ceremony is
circumcision. No date can be assigned for its introduction
among the Malagasy. It was either brought by the original
settlers, or introduced by Arab or other traders of African
descent, at a very early period. Tradition states, that
Andriamanelo established the custom in the interior of the
island, and that Andrianjaka added to its observances.
Those chieftains, however lived in a period comparatively
modern. Flacourt describes the ceremony as practised in

HISTORY OF MADAGASCAR.

177

the island when he wrote his history, nearly two hundred
years ago, and as having then existed for a long time; and
his testimony is confirmed by the accounts of the pirates
and other earlier settlers on different parts of the coast.

Although the Malagasy regard this ceremony somewhat
in the light of a religious rite, they assign no moral con-
siderations for its observance. Scarcely, indeed, are physi-
cal reasons adverted to. They occasionally intimate that
it is regarded as in some way essential to manhood. In
general, however, if a Malagasy be asked why he observes
it, he replies, " Our ancestors practised it, and we do the
same ;" and should he be still further importuned, "But
why did your ancestors do it?" the trenchant reply is
thrown back on the too inquisitive inquirer, "Who can
tell that?"

The following account of the ceremonies, as generally
observed, has been furnished by those who were eye wit-
nesses of the proceedings described. On some occasions,
and among different families and classes of the people,
deviations from the particulars stated are observable, but
they are too trivial to merit distinct notice.

The time of performing this ceremony does not at all
depend on the age of the child ; and nothing analogous to
the Jewish observance of an eighth day exists. All depends
on the will of the sovereign, as the ceremony is, in some
respects, an initiation into the rank, privileges, and obliga-
tions of the members of the body politic, and, in a sense,
transfers the subjects from the jurisdiction of the parent to
that of the king. The sovereign, in consequence of an
application from the parents or the friends of any number of
children in a given province, appoints a time, and orders
the observance of the rite.

When the announcement has been made, that a general

1. N

178

HISTORY OF MADAGASCAR.

observance of this rite shall take place, the parents and
relations make their arrangements for the day : this is ne-
cessary, because the different branches of the same family
assemble for convenience in one house on the occasion. As
chanting and singing form a considerable part of the pro-
ceedings, these exercises are practised by the people, in
their respective villages, for some days before the arrival
of the time for the circumcision. The females employ
considerable time in preparing ornaments and decorations
for their persons, particularly in plaiting their hair in the
finest manner possible. Slaying of oxen, and feasting in
each other's houses, generally occupy the week imme-
diately preceding the ceremony.

These preliminaries adjusted, the " binding the calabash
or gourd," fehi-voatava, follows. A gourd or calabash,
used for fetching or holding water, is selected, and carried
in procession by a number of men to the sovereign, or his
representative, on the occasion. The leader of the proces-
sion carries a spear and a shield The calabash is intended
to be used in fetching the water called holy or sacred,
employed in the ceremony, and is carried in this formal
manner to the king, who is also high-priest on this occasion,
in order that it may be consecrated. Its consecration con-
sists in the king's striking off, with his spear, the top of the
gourd, and afterwards binding it in cross plaits with a par-
ticular kind of grass, and the slender branches of a native
shrub. In performing this part of the ceremony, the king,
holding a shield in his left hand and a spear in his right,
imitates the action of a warrior, and exhorts the fathers
of those children who are about to undergo the rite, to
enforce on their attention the duty of loyalty and devoted-
ness to their sovereign, that they may serve, honour, and
do homage to him.

HISTORY OF .MADAGASCAR.

179

The hasuia. usual fee or acknowledgment in money,
according to the rank and ability of the party, is then pre-
sented to the sovereign, as presiding master of the cere-
monies, by the father or guardians of the children ; and the
sovereign is in the habit of lending to his personal friends,
or chieftains of high rank and station, on these occasions,
silver chains of different size and value, which are used in a
subsequent part of the proceedings.

The vessel having been, as they suppose, consecrated,
and the customary offerings or dues paid, the calabash is
carried in procession, amidst the shouting and dancing of the
pecple ; the pageant being rendered increasingly grand and
imposing in their estimation, by the numerous ornaments,
large hats, and bands across the shoulder, which are worn
by those who now proceed to obtain what is designated
sacred or holy water.

As the leader of the procession exhibits with his shield
and his spear, as he moves along, the attitudes and
actions of a warrior, he asks repeatedly, E ! rano inona
itoy ? " What water is this ?" To which others answer,
E ! rano masindrano manory ! " This is the holy w ater
that wearies."

On arriving at the spot in the fields from which the water
is to be taken, a stem of the banana-tree is planted in the
earth — a tent is erected near the spot — and under the shelter
of the latter, the party remain for the night, as it would
interfere with the required sanctity of the ceremony, for the
holy water to be conveyed into any house excepting that in
which the ceremony is to be performed. A fattened ram,
purchased for the occasion, is killed and eaten with bananas,
sugarcane, &c. during the time the party is waiting for
the water deemed sacred, the obtaining of which is so
important a part of the ceremony.

n 2

HISTORY OF MADAGASCAR.

While one party is procuring the holy water, another
party is preparing the house in which the chief part of the
rite is- to be performed. All the furniture, the mats, the
cooking utensils, &c. are removed, and the inside of the
house lined with new mats to the very roo£ A distribution
of bullocks, sheep, poultry, rice, fruit, and vegetables is also
made to the strangers who may be visiting at the time ; and
thus the engagements of the day on which the party went
for the water, close.

As soon as the morning dawns, those lodging in the
fields proceed to the pool whence the water is to be taken ;
when they reach its margin, one of their number, (and it is
necessary that it should be a man whose parents are both
still living,) descends into the water with the gourd or cala-
bash in his hand, and lowers himself in the water till the
vessel is filled. Another standing opposite to him poising
a spear, hurls it as if intending to kill him, but takes care
merely to strike the earth near the place where he stands.

When the calabash is filled with water, the bearer leaves
the pool, and the procession moves towards the village,
decorated with all the finery and ornaments which those
who compose it have been able to procure. The stems
of the banana -tree, ripe bananas, sugarcanes, bamboos,
small canes, and silver chains, with various articles used
during the course of the ceremonies, are also borne in the
procession.

From daylight the same morning, those in the village are
usually busy in preparing to go forth to meet the procession.
The chiefs and nobles array themselves in their silk and
scarlet robes, and are decorated with beads, and silver and
gold lace. Gold and silver chains are also worn in pro-
fusion, and trinkets of various descriptions " without tale."
The females also appear in their rich and many-coloured

HISTORY OF MADAGASCAR.

]8I

dresses. Their natural hair is curiously plaited, and their
heads are decorated with a varied profusion of ornaments.
Besides beads, rings, chains, &c, they wear as a part of
their head-dress a large quantity of the rofia, split into
exceedingly small fibres, and dyed black, so as to resemble
artificial hair ; the neck, hands, and feet are also loaded with
ornaments. Dollars, strung together by means of a strong
line passed through a hole on opposite edges, are worn like
bands or fillets on the heads of the females, and over the
shoulders of the men. This latter ornament is used as an
indication of the wealth of the wearers or their families.
In the order observed in the procession, fathers take prece-
dence— the mothers follow — friends, relations, and others
bring up the rear. They proceed about half a mile from the
village, where they meet those bringing the sacred water ;
the latter procession advancing slowly, dancing as they
proceed, the leader with his spear and shield asking what
the water is, in the manner already mentioned. The
females then advance, dancing, and singing, "Bless the
water, the consecrated water that wearies F

On reaching the village, the whole procession moves
three times round the house where the ceremony is to be
performed, bearing the holy water and its accompaniments ;
after which they enter the house, and remain till the
amusements commence. These consist of bull-baiting,
dancing, singing, beating drums, &c, and are kept up by
alternate parties with considerable energy and hilarity until
about sunset, when the people again enter the house.

Odd as the combination may seem, and little as the rite
to be performed may have to do with bull-baiting and platting
baskets, the preparing of the last comes next in order.

Having entered the house, the females employ them-
selves in platting split-rushes, for the purpose of forming

182

HISTORY OF MADAGASCAR.

small baskets; they sing and chant during the time they
are thus employed ; and the baskets, when finished, are
suspended in a line extending northward, the basket
intended for the eldest child being placed first.

While the females are employed making the baskets,
the master of the ceremony kills a sheep in front of his
house. This is called fahazaza.# After cutting off the
head of the animal, the body is given to the multitude,
who scramble for it, and in a few minutes tear the whole
to pieces. The use of a knife or any sharp instrument
is forbidden, as contrary to the order of the ceremony.
Every female obtaining a portion is supposed to obtain
with it the blessing of fruitfulness. No sheep, however,
possesses this potent efficacy, that is not of a certain kind
and colour decided by the sikidy, or divination.

The children on whom the rite is to be performed are
next led across the blood of the animal just killed, to
which some idea of sacredness is attached. They are
then placed on the west side of the house, and as they
stand erect, a man, holding a light cane in his hand,
measures the first child to the crown of the head, and at
one stroke cuts off a piece of the cane measured to that
height, having first carefully dipped the knife in the blood
of the slaughtered sheep. This knife is again dipped in
the blood, and the child measured to the waist, when the
cane is cut to that height. He is afterwards measured to
the knee, with similar observances. The same ceremony
is performed on all the children successively. The
meaning of this, if indeed any meaning can be attached
to it, seems to be the symbolical removal of all evils to
which the children might be exposed, — first, from the head

* Causing fruitfulness.

HISTORY OF MADAGASCAR.

183

to the waist — then from the waist to the knees — and, finally,
from the knees to the sole of the foot.

A hole is now dug in the north-east corner of the house,
in which a stem of the banana-tree is planted, and on it an
earthen lamp is fixed, to burn during the night. Great
attention is paid to the fixing of the stem, that the height
may be proper, and the lamp made fast. The stem of the
banana is consecrated by water, sweetened with honey,
being poured into the hole and upon the stem. Large
silver chains are now placed in the rice-fan, and a portion
of the sacred honey and water is poured on them, by which
they are supposed to be consecrated or separated for the
ceremony. The rice pounder is also introduced. A small
quantity of the honey and water is then given to each of
the children, and the person presenting it pronounces
benedictions on them, the silver chains in the mean time
being rattled in the rice-fan. The benedictions are of this
kind, " May the children prosper in the world ! — may they
have spacious houses, well filled with silver and slaves ! —
may their cattle be too numerous for their folds, and may
their property be great ! — if stones are thrown at them,
may they escape uninjured ! and if stoning others, may
they effect their purpose ! — if attempted to be seized, may
they elude the grasp ! and if seizing others, may they
fasten on them ! — if pursued by others, may they not be
caught ! and if pursuing others, may they take them ! — and
may they be beloved by the king and the people !"

The benedictions are repeated several times ; not, how-
ever, by direct words, but by the more expeditious mode
of numbers, (like the easy mode of praying by counting
beads,) merely saying, one, two — two, three — three, four —
up to ten, and frequently repeating these associated units.
During all this time, the people hum and repeat, prolong

184

HISTORY OF MADAGASCAR.

and repeat, the national sound " oo, oo, oo," in one con-
tinued note, as long as the breath can sustain it. This is
a usual expression of pleasure, the significant sound of
approbation, and conveys as much to a Malagasy as the
heartiest thrice-repeated cheer does to an Englishman.

It is also repeatedly asked during this part of the cere-
mony, "Is it not well? Is it not admirably well? Is it
not good ? Is it not exceedingly good?" with many other
detached and equally important exclamations and inquiries.

Having advanced thus far, some one, accustomed to
speak in the public assemblies of the people, then addresses
all who attend on the occasion, and charges them " to be-
have with proper decorum during the proceedings, to avoid
levity of conduct, and to enter the house with their heads
uncovered, lest by any neglect or impropriety they should
desecrate what is holy, and so render unavailing the
ceremony." The lamp is then lighted, the drums beat, and
dancing and singing commence, which are continued during
the whole night.

The next morning the fathers of the children who are
to be circumcised, fetch the baskets platted on the preced-
ing day, and in which bananas were placed as offerings
to avert future evils. These offerings (called Faditra) are
placed first on the children, and are then carried away by
the fathers, who prostrate themselves, as they leave the
house, to a spot at a short distance from the village, where
they are cast away. No one dares to touch these bananas ;
they are deemed accursed, and are devoted to bearing
away evil.

The ceremony of fetching the water called the
Rano-mahery, " strong water," now takes place. Early in
the morning the double calabash is brought out of the
house, a hole is struck through the centre, and silver chains

HISTORY OF MADAGASCAR.

185

are put in. It is then carried to a running stream, and
carefully filled by passing the vessel tip the stream in a
sloping direction, that the water may flow into it. In
fetching it, the bearers must run with the utmost rapidity,
having first girded up their loins. The leader of this party
also carries a spear and a shield. The people collect at
the entrance of the village, and await the return of the
water-bearers, each one holding reeds and stones in his
hand, with which, in a playful manner, they pretend to
assault the water-bearers on their return. A song is
repeated on this occasion, consisting of these few simple
expressions ; Zana-boro-mahery, Manatody ambato, " the
young eagle lays her eggs on the rock ;'' implying, that in
like manner the children will attain places now deemed
inaccessible, and deposit their property beyond the reach
of danger and spoliation. After walking round the house
three times, as before, the party enters, bending forwards
as they approach the door.

A young bullock of a red colour, selected for the occasion,
being now brought into the court-yard of the house, the
person who is to perform the rite advances, cuts a slit in
the animal's ear, and dips his knife in the blood which flows
therefrom. At the dropping of the blood from the ear of
the animal, the children are supposed to be placed under a
guarantee from all future harm. A small drum is then
placed near the threshold of the door, and the child on
whom the ceremony is now to be performed, being seated
upon it, is firmly held by several men, and his ears
stopped by the fingers of those around him. The father
stands close to the door outside, with his spear in his right
hand and shield in his left, performing with them the
actions of a warrior; and while at this moment the rite
is performed, the father exclaims, " Thou art become a

186

HISTORY OF MADAGASCAR.

man ; mayst thou be loved, loved by the sovereign and by
the people ! — may the sovereign continue to reign long ! —
may there be mutual confidence between thee and the people,
be of good report among the people, be facile of instruction,
and of a docile disposition !" The father exhorts the child
to take courage, declaring, that now he has become a man,
he should have a gun, a spear, and a shield, and should
follow the king ; that, now he belonged to the king, he
should henceforth serve him, and do homage to him, but
that if he cried, he should not be the child of the king,
but would be stigmatized as effeminate, and respected by-
no one.

The exhortations addressed to the children of the slaves
at this season are of a different description. A man with a
spade in his hands exhorts them to serve their masters
well, to collect fuel, to attend to the culture of the ground,
to take care of the cattle, &c; adding, that if they did not
serve their masters well, they would be sold, &c.

The rano-mahery, "strong water" is immediately em-
ployed in washing the children. While the rite is per-
forming, the mothers are crawling about on the floor,
touching the earth with their hands, and throwing dust and
ashes on their hair, as tokens of humiliation on account of
their children. Each mother rises from the ground at the
moment her child has received the rite, and endeavours to
assuage its grief, nursing it by the side of a fire made of
the reeds which have been already mentioned.

The rite being now performed, there is usually a distribu-
tion made by the chiefs of the district, and by the heads of
the families, of a number of oxen, to be killed and divided
among the strangers and visitors. The parties then return
to their several homes, when a fowl is killed, and some
bananas given to the children.

HISTORY OF MADAGASCAR. 187

Abstinence is enjoined on both the parents of each child
that receives the rite, as well as on the nurse, and on those
who prepare its food.

In the course of two or three weeks the whole ceremony
terminates by feasting, and other rude signs of rejoicing,
accompanied with dancing and singing. A peculiar kind of
dancing is practised on the occasion, called soratra,
which signifies " writing," and consists in the parties wearing
respectively dresses of different colours, white, blue, red, &c.
forming themselves into columns, each column having its
own colour, and then dividing, and passing each other at
right angles.

In the year 1825 the ceremony occupied the attention of
the inhabitants of Ankova during the months of June, July,
and August, and was attended with a vast expenditure of
time and property. Subsequent poverty, thefts, and murders,
to a most fearful extent, were the deplorable consequences.

Another popular engagement in use among the Malagasy
is that of forming Brotherhoods, which, though not peculiar to
them, is one of the most remarkable usages of the country.

The design of this custom might almost justify its being
designated the freemasonry of Madagascar. From that
institution, however, it differs in two essential respects : its
rites and ceremonies are not secret, but public ; and its
object is to cement two individuals in the bonds of most
sacred friendship, and not to constitute a mysterious and
secret society. More than two may thus associate, if they
please, but the practice is usually limited to that number, and
rarely embraces more than three or four individuals. It is
called fatidra, i. e. " dead blood," either because the oath
is taken over the blood of a fowl killed on the occasion, or
because a small portion of blood is drawn from each indivi-

HISTORY OF MADAGASCAR.

dual, when thus pledging friendship, and drunk by those
to whom friendship is pledged, with execrations of vengeance
on each other in case of violating the sacred oath. To
obtain the blood, a slight incision is made in the skin
covering the centre of the bosom, significantly called
ambavafo, " the mouth of the heart." Allusion is made to
this in the formula of this tragi-comical ceremony.

When two or more persons have agreed on forming this
bond of fraternity, a suitable place and hour are determined
upon, and some gunpowder and a ball are brought, together
with a small quantity of ginger, a spear, and two particular
kinds of grass. A fowl also is procured; its head is nearly
cut off ; and it is left in this state, to continue bleeding during
the ceremony. The parties then pronounce a long form
of imprecation and mutual vow to this effect — " Should either
of us prove disloyal to the sovereign, or unfaithful to each
other, then perish the day, and perish the night.* Awful
is that, solemn is that which we are now both about to
perform ! O the mouth of the heart ! — this is to be cut,
and we shall drink each other's blood. O this ball! O this
powder ! O this ginger ! O this fowl weltering in its blood !
it shall be killed, it shall be put to excruciating agonies, —
it shall be killed by us, it shall be speared at this corner of
the hearth, (Alakaforo or Adimizana, S.W.) And whoever
would seek to kill or injure us, to injure our wives, or our
children, to waste our money or our property ; or if either of
us should seek to do what would not be approved of by the
king or by the people ; should one of us deceive the other
by making that which is unjust appear just; should one
accuse the other falsely ; should either of us with our wives

* An expression remarkably similar to that of the patriarch Job,
" Perish the day in which I was born ! and the night which shouted 1 A man-
child is brought forth !' " See Dr. Good's Translation, ch. iii. ver. 3.

HISTORY OF MADAGASCAR.

189

and children be lost and reduced to slavery, (forbid that
such should ever be our lot !) — then, that good may arise
out of evil, we follow this custom of the people ; and we do
it for the purpose of assisting one another with our families,
if lost in slavery, by whatever property either of us may
possess, for our wives are as one to us, and each other's
children as his own, and our riches as common property :
O the mouth of the heart ! O the ball ! O the powder !
O the ginger ! O this miserable fowl weltering in its blood !
thy liver do we eat, thy liver do we eat ; and should either
of us retract from the terms of this oath, let him instantly
become a fool, let him instantly become blind, let this
covenant prove a curse to him : let him not be a human
being : let there be no heir to inherit after him, but let him
be reduced, and float with the water never to see its source ;
let him never obtain ; what is out of doors, may it never
enter ; and what is within, may it never go out; the little
obtained, may he be deprived of it, and let him never
obtain justice from the sovereign nor from the people !
But if we keep and observe this covenant, let these things
bear witness. O mouth of the heart! (repeating as before)
may this cause us to live long and happy with our wives
and our children; may we be approved by the sovereign,
and beloved by the people ; may we get money, may we
obtain property, cattle, &c, may we marry wives, (vady
kely,) may we have good robes, and wear a good piece of
cloth on our bodies, since, amidst our toils and labour,
these are the things we seek after.# And this we do
that we may with all fidelity assist each other to the last.

The incision is then made, as already mentioned ; a small
quantity of blood extracted and drank by the covenanting

* A confession that confirms the declaration of the Divine Teacher, who,
knowing what was in man, said, " After all these things do the gentiles
seek."

190

HISTORY OF MADAGASCAR.

parties respectively saying as they take it, " These are our
last words, We will be like rice and water;* in town they
do not separate, and in the fields they do not forsake one
another : we will be as the right and left hand of the body ,
if one be injured, the other necessarily suffers and sympa-
thizes with it."

The terms of the covenant are not regarded as binding
literally ; the respective possessions of the parties, such as
cattle, slaves, money, &c, are not considered as common pro-
perty; but the engagement involves a sort of moral obligation
for one to assist the other in every extremity : and, however
devoid of meaning some parts of the ceremony of forming
brotherhood may appear, and whatever indications of bar-
barity of feeling may appear in others, it is less exceptionable
than many that prevail among the people.

The design of the engagement — which is in fact a cove-
nant to render mutual help in seasons of peril or need — is
highly commendable ; while the limited number embraced
in the same fraternity, prevents its ever threatening, as
combinations so permanently binding are sometimes sup-
posed to do, the peace of society. So far as those who
have resided in the country have observed its effects, they
appear almost invariably to have been safe to the com-
munity, and beneficial to the individuals by whom the
compact was formed.

The practice of a similar mode of entering into the most
sacred engagement, by the inhabitants of the large but
extremely remote island of Borneo, especially by the Dayaks,
one of the chief aboriginal tribes of that country, adds
greatly to the opinion generally entertained, that Mada-

* This is a natural, simple, and beautiful allusion, in common use among
the Malagasy, to denote an inseparable association. The rice is planted in
water — grows in water — is boiled in water — and water is the universal
beverage taken with it when eaten.

HISTORY OF MADAGASCAR.

191

gascar was, at least in part, peopled from the same source
as that from which most of the islands of the Malayan
archipelago derived their inhabitants.

This similarity, particularly in the ratification of the
friendship by the parties drinking each other's blood, is
strikingly exemplified in the subjoined account, furnished
by the Rev. W. Medhurst, a Missionary of the London
Missionary Society, who has resided many years in Java,
in describing a late visit made by his assistant, and a Mis-
sionary from the Rhenish Missionary Society, to the Dayaks
in Borneo.*

* After speaking of the attention paid by the chiefs and people at a vil-
lage called Gohong, Mr. Medhurst continues : — " They wished, therefore,
to establish a fraternal agreement with the Missionaries, on condition that
the latter should teach them the ways of God. The travellers replied,
that if the Dayaks became the disciples of Christ, they would be consti-
tuted the brethren of Christians without any formal compact. The Dayaks,
however, insisted that the travellers should enter into a compact, according
to the custom of the country, by means of blood. The Missionaries were
startled at this, thinking that the Dayaks meant to murder them, and com-
mitted themselves to their heavenly Father, praying that, whether living or
dying, they might lie at the feet of their Saviour. It appears, however, that
it is the custom of the Dayaks, when they enter into a covenant, to draw a
little blood from the arms of the covenanting parties, and, having mixed it
with water, each to drink, in this way, the blood of the other. Mr. Baren-
stein having consented to the ceremony, they all took off their coats, and
two officers came forward with small knives, to take a little blood out of the
arm of each of them ; this being mixed together in four glasses of water,
they drank severally each from the glass of the other, after which they
joined hands and kissed : the people then came forward, and made obeisance
to the Missionaries, as the friends of the Dayak kings, crying out with loud
voices, 1 Let us be friends and brethren for ever, and may God help the
Dayaks to obtain the knowledge of God from the Missionaries ! The two
chiefs then said, ■ Brethren, be not afraid to dwell with us, for we will do
you no harm ; and if others wish to hurt you, we will defend you with our
life's blood, and die ourselves ere you be slain. God be witness, and this
whole assembly be witness, that this is true.' Whereupon the whole com-
pany shouted, Balaak I or 1 good,' • be it so. ' After the ceremony was over,
the travellers bade them farewell, and, going on board their prow, returned
to Benjarmasin, accompanied by the chiefs and people shouting and cheering
as they went."

192

HISTORY OF MADAGASCAR.

Among the Malagasy few classes derive more benefit
from the covenant of brotherhood than the slaves, who very
generally avail themselves of the advantages its provisions
afford, and thus, in some degree, mitigate the severity of
their lot. Its influence is also acknowledged by the highest
ranks : the late Radama, when pursuing his career of con-
quest on the western shore, confirmed his treaty of friend-
ship with a shrewd and powerful chieftain near Tamatave, by
the covenant of brotherhood ; in ratifying which, the high-
contracting parties drank each other's blood.

From the notices already given of the social institutions and
usages of the inhabitants of Madagascar, it has been shewn
that it is a country in which slavery has accumulated its
guilt, entailed its degradation, and inflicted its misery. Of
the nature and extent of the slave-trade formerly carried
on in this country, and the means which led to its abolition,
an account will be given in a subsequent part of this work,
but a brief notice of domestic slavery in the island may not
be inappropriately introduced in connexion with the fore-
going account of native society.

Slavery appears to have existed in Madagascar from a
very early period of its history. Whether this greatest
curse of human soiciety is of indigenous growth, or whe-
ther it was imported by any of the early emigrants from
Africa or other countries, is uncertain ; but from the date
of the earliest correct accounts that have been given of
the people, it appears to have been general throughout the
island. Captives taken in war, and the wives and chil-
dren of those vanquished in battle, were retained in slavery,
and sold by their conquerors, being regarded as the most
valuable part of the spoils of victory.

Free persons sometimes become slaves by their own act,
viz., by selling themselves, when reduced to a state of abso-

HISTORY OF MADAGASCAR.

193

lute poverty, into slavery. A father may also sell Lis
children into slavery in certain cases. Many are made
slaves by the sentence of the judges, or the edict of the
sovereign. Slavery is the heaviest penalty of the law next
to capital punishment: it is always attended with confis-
cation of property, and involves the wives and children of
the party on whom it is inflicted. In the hands of a weak
and vindictive government, it is an instrument of fearful
oppression and cruelty ; and all its severity and bitterness
have been repeatedly felt in this unhappy country in recent
years, to an almost incredible degree. Sometimes the
slavery is final, and the bondman rendered irredeemable ;
in other cases a price is fixed on the slave, on the payment
of which he is restored to liberty.

The children of the slaves are the property of the
owners of their parents ; and from this source, as well as
by purchase, the Malagasy families obtain a succession of
home-born slaves : these are at any time liable to be sold
to another master, and taken to a distant part of the
country.

The treatment the unhappy slaves receive, differs with
the dispositions and manners of their owners. In many
cases that treatment is comparatively mild, the yoke of
bondage is not felt to be heavily oppressive, the unjust
and unnatural relation of proprietor and owner is absorbed
in that of the head of a large household ; and there have
been rare instances, in which a slave has been so well
treated as to prefer remaining in slavery to being set free.
Such individuals, of course, continue with their proprietors,
although no custom of "boring the ear," similar to the
Jewish practice, is known to exist.

In some cases a poor freeman has been known to offer
himself as a slave to a family of respectability and kindness
i. o

194

HISTORY OF MADAGASCAR.

of disposition, only requiring to be fed and clothed. Chil-
dren follow the condition of the mother, to whatever owner
the father may belong, or whatever may be his rank.

The principal employment of the slave is in the culture
and preparation of rice, which is the staple food of the
people. During the season for digging the soil, sowing,
transplanting, and reaping, the slave is employed in the
field : on him also devolves the thrashing and housing the
grain ; to pound, sift, wash, and clean the rice, is also
their daily employment, and is, in fact, one of the chief
occupations of the slave, together with fetching water from
the springs. The latter is exclusively the business of
females, excepting that for the sovereign, which is always
carried by men.

When slaves in a family are numerous, some attend to
cattle ; others are employed in cultivating esculent roots ;
others collect fuel : and of the females, some are employed
in spinning, weaving, and making nets, washing, and other
domestic occupations.

Some of the nobles have two or three hundred slaves.
In many cases, the masters, particularly where they are
numerous, allot them pieces of ground for themselves.
These they cultivate, and thus provide for their families
food and clothing ; of the latter, indeed, the slaves gene-
rally possess but a very scanty portion.

In the army, it is usual for slaves to accompany the
owners, to carry their bedding, (i. e. mats,) with provisions,
and to cook for them during the journey or campaign*

Confidential slaves are also employed by some owners in
trade, and are of course entrusted with a small capital. Half
the amount of profit obtained is allowed to the slave, as an
encouragement to industry, and a reward for fidelity. Some
families wholly support themselves by this means.

HISTORY OF MADAGASCAR.

195

Among the slaves, marriage is honourable, as in other
classes of society. Its bond is, however, loose, and exceed-
ingly liable to disruption, being not unfrequently dissevered.
It is regarded more as a matter of convenience than of any
moral obligation. The parties frequently belong to differ-
ent owners, and sometimes exchange owners, occasioning
not merely a removal from one part of the town to another,
(a circumstance of very little importance,) but from one
town to another, or from one part of the country to a dis-
tant one. This local separation dissolves, as if by neces-
sity, the tie which had united the husband and wife.
Others separate because they no longer choose to live
together ; and as no form or ceremony beyond their own
agreement cements their union, none is deemed necessary
to their separation. They agree to separate, or the one
party ceases to frequent the other, and by a tacit under-
standing the connexion is broken. There are, however,
honourable exceptions. A mutual attachment is in some
cases the basis of the conjugal union, the pledge of conjugal
fidelity and of permanent connexion, and the parties remain
man and wife till death, which dissolves all human ties,
bursts this, the closest and best of all earthly bonds.

A freeman is not permitted by law to marry a slave, but
a freeman may redeem the slave he wishes to marry ; and
when thus made free, she cannot be sold into slavery again.
In the event of a divorce, the woman goes forth free.*

The lot of the slave-mother is not an enviable one. Her
service is little, if at all, diminished by the circumstance of
her having a family. The infants must crawl about on the
ground, or are carried at her back while performing her
daily routine of labour ; yet such is the force of custom,

* This merciful provision corresponds with the Mosaic regulation on the
subject, already noticed.

o 2

196

HISTORY OF MADAGASCAR.

that a child at the back, secured by the mother's lamba, or
outer garment, and stretching its little legs around her
sides, seems to occasion but slight inconvenience to the
parent, whether carrying a load on her head, fetching water
from the springs, or discharging other domestic duties.

No term of service necessarily secures the liberty of the
slave. A master may grant freedom if he pleases, but no
law compels him to bestow it. Slaves are, however, at
times redeemed by their relations, when the latter are in
circumstances to advance the required sum.

Masters have full power over their slaves, excepting as
to life. They may act towards them as they please, and
punish them as they judge proper for any offence they are
guilty of; the sovereign reserving to himself the right of
inflicting the punishment of death. Trial by ordeal is
administered to slaves by permission of the judges. Beating,
flogging, and putting in chains are punishments in the
hands of the proprietors. A slave's security from severe
treatment consists chiefly in the national usages and the
national spirit, both of which, in regard to the treatment
of slaves, are mild rather than cruel.

Between these bondmen and the absolutely free, there
exists what may be termed an intermediate class, who,
though not exposed to all the bitterness of slavery, nor
liable to be sold or given in exchange from one owner to
another, yet taste few of the sweets of liberty. Among
these may be reckoned those who labour for the govern-
ment, especially those employed in felling timber or
burning charcoal. In one of the great forests near the
capital, the woodcutters, called "the twelve hundred,"
though these are supposed to be two thousand in number,
are employed through life in felling, and preparing for
building or other purposes, timber for the government.

HISTORY OF MADAGASCAR.

197

They build their huts, and rear their families, in the recesses
of the forest, cultivating suitable portions of the soil for
their scanty subsistence. The male children of these
people are regarded as woodcutters from their birth, and
labour at their avocation through life without any wages or
remuneration from the government : and were any of them
to abandon their occupation, and leave the forest, they would
be pursued by soldiers, treated as criminals or deserters if
overtaken, and shot or otherwise put to death. This hard-
ship is not confined to the woodcutters, but extended to all
the natives regularly employed by the government. These
amount to a considerable number, as there are, besides the
fellers of timber and burners of charcoal, smiths or general
workers in iron about four hundred in number, gunsmiths
and spear-makers, carpenters, gunpowder manufacturers in-
cluding those who prepare nitre and sulphur, tanners and cur-
riers, soap-boilers, tailors, and sempstresses. The numbers
engaged respectively in these several avocations vary, but
all are required to labour at them during life for the sove-
reign, without any payment for their labour ; they are, it is
true, exempted from the taxes levied on the freemen, but
they are obliged to provide for the support of themselves
and families, which they generally effect by the cultivation
of a small portion of rice-ground ; but should the labours of
their several avocations not allow time for this, the govern-
ment makes no provision for their support, and this must
be supplied, as is the case with those in the army, by their
relations, or the families to which they may severally
belong. No individual appointed by the sovereign to any
of the above occupations could leave the same for any
other, or remove to another part of the island, excepting by
the consent of the government, without being subject to
the penalty of death.

198 HISTORY OF MADAGASCAR.

There is another class, inhabiting the eastern districts,
the Bezanozano, who are required to carry all merchandise
or other goods for the sovereign from the coast to the capital,
a distance of three hundred miles — an unrequited service,
which they dare not refuse, on pain of forfeiting their lives.
The disastrous operation of such arbitrary exactions is too
apparent to need any remark, and cannot fail greatly to retard
the progress of improvement and civilization.

No traits of character or general feature in the domestic
habits of the Malagasy, are more conspicuous and pleasing
than their universal practice of hospitality.

Throughout the country, with the exception of perhaps
one or two of the portions but little known and seldom
visited, and where the inhabitants are suspicious or reserved,
whenever a stranger in the course of his journey enters a
village, and if he only proposes to remain and rest for a
short season, a present is almost invariably brought him of
rice, poultry, and fruit, or whatever other refreshment the
village affords; and if disposed to delay his departure
till the next day, he will experience no difficulty in attaining
the best accommodations in the village. Whatever house
he approaches, if the proprietors are within, he is politely
invited to enter, and is cordially welcomed. A mat is
spread, on which he is directed to sit or recline, and he
is either assisted in preparing his own provisions, if he
carry these with him, or solicited with respectful courtesy
to partake of the best which the house may contain. This
is followed by a succession of attentions and civilities, which
cannot fail to convince him, that if he is not among the
most polished and refined portions of human society, he is
not among rude and unfriendly barbarians.

The hospitality of the people is in part to be ascribed to
their customs in regard to their chiefs, who always require

HISTORY OF MADAGASCAR.

100

to be entertained with the best that can be provided, when-
ever they travel among the people. Of this custom the
government has not been backward to avail itself; while
it has encouraged, and to some extent enjoined, the observ-
ance of the rites of hospitality. In the latter part of his
reign, the late king issued a proclamation, declaring that,
while all the provision and other kinds of property belonged
to the subject, all the houses in the country belonged to
the sovereign; and calling on the inhabitants to furnish
lodgings to his servants or soldiers whenever they might
require them. In order to satisfy himself as to the degree
of attention paid to his proclamation, he went shortly after-
wards in disguise to a village at some distance from the
capital, and towards evening entered one of the houses,
and solicited shelter and accommodation for the night.
This was not refused by the heads of the family, but
rendered in a way that prevented the guest from conclud-
ing, by any possible mistake, that he was welcome. He
soon left, and travelled to the next house that appeared
likely to yield the shelter he required. Here he was
cordially welcomed, and hospitably entertained with the
best that the host could provide. On the following morning,
when taking his leave, Radama, not less to the surprise
than consternation of the whole of the family, made himself
known, and left them with assurances that they should not
be forgotten. He remembered his word ; and soon after
his return to the capital, sent his officers to the village,
with a severe reprimand to the man under whose roof he
had found himself an unwelcome guest, and a handsome
present for the peasant family by whom he had been gene-
rously entertained.

200

HISTORY OF MADAGASCAR.

CHAP. VIII.

Facility with which the means of subsistence are obtained in Madagascar —
Different kinds of food — Flesh of the ox, sheep, and goat, monkeys, and
hedgehogs — Poultry — Fish — Eggs of the crocodile — Locusts and grass-
hoppers— Silkworms in their chrysalis state — Vegetables and grain — Rice,
maize, manioc, arrow-root, yams, sweet potatoes, &c. — Additions to the
above by the introduction of European vegetables — Increasing use of the
Irish potato — Fruits — pineapples,grapes, oranges, peaches, citrons, lemons,
&c. — Manufacture of bread— Methods of dressing their food — rice-boiling
— Cooking of meat — Limitation of the number of meals in a day — Custom
of washing the hands before meals — Manner of taking food — Beverage of
the people — Distillation by foreigners — By natives — Uses of tobacco —
Expedients used in preparing Malagasy snuff— General mode of taking
snuff by the mouth — Intoxicating quality of the native hemp — Longevity
of the natives — Number and nature of diseases — The Malagasy fever ;
its symptoms, progress, European and native remedies — State of the
healing art among the natives — Supposed origin of diseases — Cures
attempted only by divination — Native medicines — Use of the vapour bath
— Of cold bathing — Superstitious observances — The Malagasy god of
medicine.

The soil of Madagascar, though fertile, yields spontaneously
but few roots that are suitable for food. Vegetation is luxu-
riant and diversified ; yet the shrubs and trees that grow-
without culture, include not the prolific bread-fruit of
Polynesia, nor furnish the inhabitants with more than a very
small portion of the means of subsistence. These, however,
are obtained with comparative ease, in sufficient abundance
to supply every want of the people ; while the extent of the
soil and resources of the country are fully adequate to
sustain a population vastly greater than its present amount.
The means of subsistence which the country affords, though
they exhibit less variety than prevail in some countries of

HISTORY OF MADAGASCAR. 201

the same zone, are most valuable in kind, and highly con-
ducive to vigour and health. The numerous herds of
cattle, which constitute the chief wealth of the Malagasy,
supply one of the most constant and serviceable kinds of
food to all, excepting the very poorest classes in society.
The animal food of the Malagasy comprises the flesh of fish,
fowls, and beasts; the latter including those esteemed the
best by all tribes of men. The productions of their soil
comprise vegetables, roots, and fruits.

Among the several kinds of animal food, the flesh of
the ox is most valuable and abundant. Beef is termed, by
way of eminence, hena, meat : all other kinds of meat being
distinguished by affixing the animal's name. The dis-
tinction probably arose from the flesh of the ox being the
the first, and for a time the only, as it is now the chief, kind
of animal food used by the people. The ox is the only
animal that is slaughtered for sale in the markets ; sheep,
goats, and all others, -are sold alive. Besides beef and
mutton, veal and lamb are sometimes used.

No pigs are allowed to come to the capital ; but pork
is eaten in the Sakalava country, and other parts of the
island inhabited by the dark-coloured tribes, who also eat
the flesh of the wild boar. Goats are eaten by some, as
are also monkeys and hedgehogs, of many kinds and degrees
of delicacy.

The poultry of the Malagasy comprises turkeys, geese,
and ducks, with tame and wild fowl. Fowls are abundant.
They have also a species of wild fowl resembling the
pheasant ; guinea-fowl, tame and wild ; various kinds of
birds, especially one in shape like a partridge, but smaller.
Tortoises, turtles; eggs of hens, ducks, and all birds, as
well as those of the crocodile. In their estimate of eggs
used as food, those that contain chickens are said to be

202

HISTORY OF MADAGASCAR.

considered the greatest delicacies. The eggs of the cro-
codile are taken in large numbers in some parts of the
island : and the Missionaries have seen as many as five
hundred eggs gathered for food by one family. Their
lighter kinds of animal food, like that of the Africans on
the adjacent continent, comprises locusts and several sorts
of grasshoppers.

Large swarms of locusts are often seen in Madagascar
in the spring and summer. They generally approach the
central parts of the island from the southern and western
quarter, and pass like a desolating scourge over the face
of the country, leaving the trees and shrubs entirely leaf-
less, and destroying the plantations of rice and manioc,
and whatever the gardens contained. Their appearance
on approaching is like a dense cloud of considerable
extent, the lowest part of which is about two feet above
the ground, while the upper part rises to a great elevation.
The natives, on the approach of the locusts, fly to their
gardens, and, by shouts and noises of the most tumultuous
kind, endeavour to prevent their alighting. In the uncul-
tivated parts of the country, they often dig holes, of large
dimensions, and nearly a foot deep, in which great quantities
are collected and taken ; or they arrest thern in their flight
by means of wide shallow baskets, or by striking them down
with their lambas, after which they are gathered up in
baskets by the women and children. The locusts form at
times an important article of food; for this purpose they
are caught as above described, slightly cooked, and eaten,
after the legs and wings have been picked off*; or they are
partially boiled in large iron or earthen vessels, dried in
the sun, and repeatedly winnowed, in order to clear the
bodies from the legs and wings ; they are afterwards packed
up in baskets, and carried to the market for sale, or

HISTORY OF MADAGASCAR.

203

kept in large sacks or baskets in the house for domestic
use.

Locusts are usually cooked by frying them in an iron or
earthen vessel. Shrimps are not unknown in the island, and
the natives say that in taste the locusts resemble them.

An equally singular, but scarcely less frequent article
of food among the Malagasy, is the silkworm in its
chrysalis state. Considerable quantities of these are
gathered, and exposed in large baskets or sacks for sale
in the markets of the Betsileo country, and in some of the
districts of Imerina, more particularly Imamo, where the
tapia edulis, the plant on which the silkworm of Madagascar
feeds, grows spontaneously in great luxuriance and abun-
dance. Silkworms are cooked and eaten by the natives of
Betsileo and Imerina as grasshoppers and fish are prepared
and taken by the inhabitants of other provinces.

The fish eaten by the natives are not numerous. A spe-
cies resembling trout in form and size, with a considerable
variety of smaller fish, especially a kind of the size and
appearance of sprats, taken in the canals or branches of
the rice grounds, and in the inland ponds, are much used.
Eels, some of them remarkably large, crawfish, and oysters
are also used in different parts of the country.

The vegetable productions are numerous and valuable.
First among these may be properly reckoned the nutri-
tious and wholesome vary, or native rice. It is the
most important and general article of support to the
whole population, and may be justly regarded, as in many
Eastern countries, the staff of life. The natives consider
rice alone as mahavoky, " able to appease hunger, or
satisfy the appetite." Every thing else, even the round of
buffalo beef, is regarded only as an accompaniment to
the rice. In ancient times, in some countries, the invita-

204

HISTORY OF MADAGASCAR.

tion to a feast was to eat bread ; and to take refreshment,
of whatever it may consist, is, in the language of the
country, to take bread: so, in Madagascar, to eat rice
signifies to take a meal ; whatever is taken besides, is called
laoka, (the inei of the Polynesians,) something eaten with
rice, their chief or staple food.

ISext to rice, the most valuable kinds of food are, the
maize, or Indian corn, the manioc root, arrow-root, and
several varieties of yam. To these may be added sweet
potatoes, French beans, and most of the European esculent
vegetables; besides many valuable roots that grow in the
plains, woods, or valleys, without culture. The Irish potato
has also been introduced, and is becoming a favourite
article of food. Onions are exotic. Leeks, pumpkins,
melons, with many agreeable and wholesome vegetables
resembling greens or cabbage, and others that have thick
and pulpy leaves, are eaten by the people. Capsicum, or
Chili ginger, in a moist state, and saffron, are used as
spices or condiments, together with salt, obtained by a
process already described, or brought from the coast,
where it is formed by evaporation.

The fruits eaten by the people include pineapples, oranges,
lemons of various kinds, citrons, peaches, wild figs of several
kinds ; bananas and plantains, muscat grapes, Cape mulber-
ries, several kinds of berries which grow without culture. A
fruit resembling an unripe orange in appearance, the outer
part of which consists of a shell of a pale yellow or straw
colour, the inside being of a pulpy substance, inclosing
a number of small seeds, and bearing a great resemblance
to the guava ; also sugarcane and sugar.

A kind of bread called ampempa is used by the inha-
bitants of some of the districts, particularly Imamo. It is
a sort of unleavened bread made of Indian corn; which the

HISTORY OF MADAGASCAR.

205

natives call katsaka. To the above may be added honey,
found in the forests ; milk, which is not much used by the
natives. Very recently, butter and cheese have been made
for use in the Mission families.

The Malagasy methods of dressing their food are few ;
and they have not many compounds or made dishes. The
most important part of their cookery consists in preparing
their rice, which is generally boiled in a large round earthen
or iron pot, with a very broad base ; which is placed on
the stones, fixed in the hearth, in the centre of the house.

The rice, which is kept in the husk in a sort of granary,
is made ready for use in such quantities only as the daily
consumption of the family may require. The rice is pre-
pared with great care, and involves considerable labour:
when first brought from the granary, it is put into a large
stone or wooden mortar, about eighteen inches or two feet
deep, and twelve or eighteen inches wide. Here it is care-
fully beaten in a peculiar manner, with a large wooden
pestle, about five feet in length, so as to break and remove
the outer husk without breaking the grain. The rice is
then taken out, and separated from the husk by winnowing ;
it is then beaten in the mortar a second time, for the pur-
pose of taking off the inner skin, which is also removed
without breaking the grain, after this it is again sub-
mitted to the w innowing-fan, and the pieces of earth or
small stones carefully picked out. The rice is then a
third time submitted to the operation of the pestle, to
Temove any remaining portion of the inner covering of the
grain ; this being done, it is tossed in the winnowing-fan,
washed in fresh clean water two or three times, and finally
put into the earthen or iron vessel, and covered with water
when fuel is supplied until it boils. The water is allowed to
boil slowly until the rice, which is never disturbed, gra-

206

HISTORY OF MADAGASCAR.

dually swells, absorbs the water, and encrusts on the inside
of the vessel — the rice in the middle becoming dry, though,
towards the outside, the grains adhere. It is then pro-
nounced masaka, "done, ripe."

Meat is either boiled, roasted, fried, or stewed ; though
in a manner somewhat different from that practised in
Europe and other countries, where the animal is skinned
before being cut up into joints or steaks, and cooked. The
flesh of most animals is cooked with the skin and hair on ;
which (excepting at festivals) is invariably the case with
their beef:* the skin is so peculiarly palatable, that square
pieces of it, with a portion of fat adhering to them, are
frequently boiled till they form one gelid or glutinous
mass, when they constitute a dish in high repute with the
Malagasy epicures. The thickest parts of the skin are the
greatest delicacies.

Their meat is boiled or stewed in an earthen or iron
vessel, or fried in one of the same kind ; and when roasted
or baked, is suspended or fixed in the blaze of the fire, or
placed among burning embers of the hearth.

The jaky, meat, eaten at the great annual feast, is cut
into long strips or slices, dried in the smoke of their houses,
and torn to pieces, till in appearance it resembles burnt
shreds of cloth or leather. Before being served up for
food, it is fried or stewed with fat.

* This is an exceedingly primitive mode, if we are to receive the testi-
mony of a Chinese writer, who states, that " in high antiquity human beings
inhabited the dens and caves of the wilderness ; and, free from jealousy or
opposition, cultivated the friendship of animals. But when men began to
exercise wisdom, beasts became their enemies, whose claws, tusks, horns,
and venomous properties, rendered them exceedingly formidable. Habita-
tions were built of wood for protection, and the human species began to
study the art of self-preservation. From ignorance of agriculture, and
want of skill to procure fire, they subsisted on grass, wild fruits, and raw
flesh, which they ate with the hair on."

HISTORY OF MADAGASCAR.

207

Locusts are stewed, or fried in the same manner j their
wings being first removed by shaking them together in
order to detach the legs and wings from their bodies, and
then winnowing in the manner already described.

Vegetables are usually boiled. Yams are boiled or
roasted. Manioc root is boiled, roasted, or dried in the
sun till it resembles pipe-clay. Eggs are boiled hard.
Maize is roasted or boiled, excepting when made into a
sort of bread. Arrow-root is boiled. Whatever pepper or
salt, &c. is used, is thrown in during the cooking process,
and not taken with the food afterwards.

The manner of taking meals among the Malagasy
is remarkably simple and primitive. When the rice is
cooked, and the laoka, whatever it may be, (which is always
dressed in a separate vessel,) is ready, the family, guided
by the position of the sun in the heavens, generally wend
their way to the house.

All classes, excepting the aged, the sick, and infants,
or young children, take only two meals in the day; the
first about noon, and the second after sunset, usually from
seven to eight o'clock in the evening.

When the household, including slaves, meet at their
meals, the master and rest of the family seat themselves, in
a kind of squatting position, on mats spread for the pur-
pose, on the west and north sides of the fireplace, leaning
their backs against the sides of the house ; the slaves form
themselves in a line on the ground, on the east and south
sides of the dwelling. The hands of ail are washed before
they begin their meal. This is done by a slave going round
with water in a zinga, or horn, which he pours on the
hands of each individual, who thus prepares to take his
repast.

When all are ready, earthenware plates, or rather basons,

208

HISTORY OF MADAGASCAR.

fixed on a broad pedestal about a foot in height, are then
filled by the slaves with rice, and on the top of the rice
the laoka is placed. If meat, it is always previously cut
into pieces or portions, according to the number to be
provided for. Whatever the laoka may be, whether meat,
fowl, or fish, soup, honey, or vegetables, it is always
placed on the rice. If the plate contain
a portion for only one individual, a
spoon is put into the rice, and it is
placed by a slave before the person for
whom it is designed. Sometimes the
portions for two or three individuals are
deposited in one basin, when an equal
number of spoons made of horn are
fixed in the rice.

No forks are used at the Malagasy meals; the hands
serve as excellent substitutes, in the estimation of the
people in general. There is generally but one knife, which
is used by the slave who divides the portions of meat, or
other laoka, for the several members of the family.

A separate vessel of rice is in general cooked at the
same fire for the slaves ; but when the number of the
latter is small, sufficient rice is boiled for them as well
as for their masters in one vessel, and they take their meal
either at the same time or immediately after the family.

As soon as the rice-dishes are emptied, a beverage
resembling coffee is made by pouring water into the
pan in which the rice had been boiled, and to the inside
of which the burnt rice had adhered. This is boiled
for a short time, when a portion of it, poured into a
rice-basin, is given to each individual, by whom it is drunk
without sugar or milk, being esteemed a wholesome plea-
sant drink.

HISTORY OF MADAGASCAR.

209

The natives wash their hands after each meal in the
manner already described ; and the teeth are cleansed with
water poured into the mouth from a horn, which is not
allowed to touch the lips.

The people are not accustomed to sit long over their
meals. The dinner is usually despatched in half an hour,
when all immediately return to their several avocations.

The meal at the close of the day is not terminated with
equal despatch, as they seldom leave the house afterwards,
excepting in the long evenings of summer.

It has been already stated, that the Malagasy are not
addicted to excessive drinking ; the exceptions chiefly occur
on the coast. The general, and indeed almost universal,
beverage of the natives, is water. They can scarcely be
said to have the habit of drinking any thing with their
i. p

210

HISTORY OF MADAGASCAR.

meals, as is customary among Europeans. A part of their
meal is usually of a fluid rather than a solid nature, and
this eaten with their rice seems to render it less necessary
for them to drink at the time of eating.

A distilled spirit, known under the general name of
" toaka," is occasionally used throughout the island, but
only as a luxury, not as a common leverage.

To the parts of the coast visited by Europeans, rum and
arrack have been principally imported, and sold to the na-
tives by the bottle or cask. These drugs are also taken in
exchange for rice, and have involved many families in want
and ruin. A very large distillery of ardent spirits was
established a few years ago on the eastern coast. It is
carried on by the agents of a mercantile house having
extensive connexions at the Isle of Bourbon, and its opera-
tion threatens serious mischief to the people.

The use of ardent spirits is prohibited at the capital ; the
law, however, is frequently evaded. Considerable quanti-
ties are used there, though for the most part within the
precincts of the palace-yard, whence the laws emanate, and
whence also indulgences are obtained, since, in a state of
society resembling that prevailing in Madagascar, legisla-
tors do not always feel bound by their own laws.

How long the art of distillation has been known in the
island, cannot be ascertained. But in various parts of
Madagascar, an inferior, and to a European palate disagree-
able spirit is prepared, from the sugarcane, or from honey,
or from the berries of the Buddleia Madagascar ensis, and
some other native productions. A juice is also produced
by the rofia-tree, which is much relished by the natives,
and is obtained in a manner similar to that in which toddy
is obtained in India. The natives make a hole in the tree
extending to the centre, tie a bottle to it, and leave it a

HISTORY OF MADAGASCAR.

short time to fill by the oozing out of the liquid, which is
perfectly clear and mild.

The native still, by which spirit is obtained from sugar-
cane, is rude and simple. After the cane has been
crushed by rolling a trunk of a tree, or heavy log, over
another log of wood laid upon the ground, and in which a
groove is formed to carry off the juice into some pan or tub,
and fermentation has been allowed, the liquor is boiled in
any large vessel the natives possess ; while boiling, the steam
is carried through a piece of bamboo, or a gun-barrel if they
possess one, to the outside of which cold water is applied, for
the purpose of condensing the steam ; and the spirit drops
into some reservoir, not unfrequently the open mouth of a
native, whose impatience forbids his waiting till the reser-
voir is filled. In preparing the toaka, they usually put into
the liquid, while the fermenting process is going on, a small
quantity of soot, for the purpose of imparting to the drink
an agreeable bitter flavour. A family seldom possess more
than a few bottles of this spirit, which is generally drank
on occasion of some social entertainment, as a friend's visit,
a return home from a distance, a marriage, or a purification
by the ordeal.

French wines are also known, where the natives have had
commerce with Europeans, and the word "divay" is intro-
duced into the language as the native mode of pronoun-
cing the French " du vin." The wines are not generally
esteemed. Something " mafana," warm to the stomach, or
of a more powerful and stimulating kind, is preferred. Malt
liquors have also been introduced, but are not used to any
extent by the people.

Milk is also drunk by many, but cannot be called a
general beverage. The people prefer allowing to the calves
the benefit of the supply which nature affords, and hence

212

HISTORY OF MADAGASCAR.

butter and cheese were unknown, till made on the spot
by Europeans, and, though highly esteemed by many of
the natives, have not yet been brought into general use.

Tobacco is cultivated to a considerable extent by the
Malagasy, but it is not smoked, or used alone, as in other
countries. With its medicinal properties the natives are
acquainted, and in their medical preparations it is frequently
employed, but it is chiefly used in the manufacture of snuff.
In the preparation of this article, which is taken as a
luxury and a stimulant, the leaves of tobacco are dried and
pulverized ; to this powder is added the ashes of the leaves
of a sweet-scented herb, in the proportions of two-thirds
powdered tobacco, and one third ashes ; a small quantity of
potash or salt is thrown in, and the whole well mixed is
considered fit for use. The Malagasy, it may be remarked,
take great quantities of snuff, but have their own mode of
doing it. Europeans prefer taking it at the nose The
Malagasy, perhaps less wisely, prefer the mouth. The
former deposit the grateful narcotic in the nostrils, the latter
pour as much as the space will conveniently hold between
the teeth in the lower jaw, and the inner surface of the
under lip ; thence to suck it leisurely, they think renders
the pleasure more lasting than a mere hasty, evanescent
sniff could afford. Which custom is really most conform-
able to nature, or best answers the purpose for which
tobacco was originally designed, is a point which it is not
essential at present to decide.

The use of the rongona, or native hemp, a powerful
stimulant, usually smoked, was formerly very general ; it was
frequently taken before going to battle, on the same prin-
ciple that an extra allowance of ardent spirits is served
out to men in the army or navy of our own country before
going to action, but its use has lately been prohibited by

HISTORY OF MADAGASCAR.

213

the government under the severest penalties. There is,
however, every reason to believe that it is still used secretly
as a means of intoxication, especially in the districts and
villages at a distance from the capital.

The habits of life among the Malagasy being in many
respects exceedingly simple, exempt them from much dis-
ease, and favour the duration of life. And though the
healing art is comparatively unknown, the period of human
existence is not, on the average, shorter than among those
nations in which the study and practice of medicine and
surgery are pursued on the most enlightened and scientific
principles. Though their towns and villages, their markets
and places of public resort, shew a great disproportion in
the number of men compared with the women, and fewer
children than an equal adult population would generally
exhibit in other parts of the world, it has been observed by
those who have resided long in the country, that there are, in
most sections of the island, an unusual number of very aged
persons. Many appear, from the number of times at which
the festival of Fandroana has occurred exactly at the same
time, (an event which takes place only once in three and
thirty years,) and from their recital of events within their
recollection, to have numbered on earth nearly one hundred
years; while there are others who are supposed to have
attained a still greater age, and who, free from any particu-
lar disease, seem to be gradually sinking under the accumu-
lated weight of years. As an indication of the protracted
period to which the human constitution retains its tone and
vigour, it is remarked, that baldness is rarely seen but
in extreme age, and that it is late in life before the hair
becomes gray. Excepting therefore the swampy coast,
and those parts of the island in which, from stagnant waters

214

HISTORY OF MADAGASCAR.

or other causes, the baneful miasma produces the fever and
ague so fatal to numbers of the inhabitants, the climate may
be regarded as conducive to health, vigour, and longevity.

But though the Malagasy are thus favourably situated,
they are not exempt from a large measure of disease and
suffering, the universal fruits of sin; while the inveteracy
of the one, and the severity of the other, are greatly
increased by the vices to which they are addicted. Though
their diseases are not numerous, one of the Missionaries
had, during his residence among them, not fewer than
between fifty and sixty different kinds of disease brought
under his notice. Very few of their maladies are acute, they
are chiefly chronic ; and though many of the afflicted pass a
considerable portion of their lives under various degrees of
suffering, but few are carried off suddenly. Many of the
diseases are common to other countries, while some are
peculiar to islands — among the latter, the most alarming
and destructive is the Madagascar fever.

The Malagasy fever, or rather fever and ague together,
is called tazo. This is the most prevalent and destructive
malady in the whole island, especially to the Hovas and
Europeans. Ankova, Fort Dauphin, and some of the
northern provinces, are the only parts of Madagascar which
are throughout the whole year exempt from its formidable
ravages. Other parts are exempt at certain seasons ; and
in some provinces it is so destructive, that certain districts
are said to resemble, during the months of December,
January, and February, the fabled valley of the deadly
Upas, where the whole atmosphere was loaded with poison.
To these districts in Madagascar, condemned criminals are
sent, and seldom survive for any length of time, their
arrival in these regions of death. Mr. Hastie describes
a district of this kind, over which he travelled in 1822, as

HISTORY OF MADAGASCAR.

215

being hilly, nearly destitute of wood, and having but few
parts covered with stagnant water; yet he states that it
was customary to send persons who had been supposed to
merit death to be confined near the place ; and adds, that
the prisoners have always, as was intended, died in the
place. The part to which Mr. Hastie refers, is about two
days' journey from the capital, in a n.n.e. direction.

It is stated as a singular fact, that the fever, (which few
Europeans, or inhabitants of other parts of Madagascar
itself, escape, and to so many of whom among both classes
it proves fatal,) rarely seizes those who are natives of, and
constant residents in, the parts of the island in which it
prevails. Some of the Missionaries are of opinion that it
preys exclusively upon strangers and foreigners. This
renders it necessary for foreigners to avoid arriving on the
coast during any of the months in which the fever prevails.
The months of the year in which it is best for Europeans
to arrive at Madagascar, are July, August, and September.
Generally speaking, they are during this period less likely
to be attacked with fever than in any other part of the year.
This is a circumstance of great importance to Europeans
proceeding to Madagascar.

The symptoms of the tazo, or Madagascar fever, vary
considerably in different individuals. In some cases its
early symptoms resemble those of a violent inflammatory
disorder. This is always considered its worst appearance.
In others it assumes the form of a remittent, and afterwards
an intermittent fever, attended with chills and shiverings.
This is regarded as its most favourable appearance, and
that which encourages the greatest hopes of recovery.
When the former symptoms are strongly marked, there is
always great danger ; but when the latter only are present,
recovery is generally expected.

216

HISTORY OF MADAGASCAR.

The symptoms of the fever, in its inflammatory state, are
a severe head-ache, languor, pain in the eyes, especially on
being turned upwards, dry and hot skin, vomitings, pain in
the right side, great thirst, quick and hard pulse, a very
foul furred tongue, aversion to food, flushing of the face,
restlessness especially at night, loss of sleep, sometimes
dread or fear, anxiety, hypochondriasis, delirium, an appa-
rent improvement, and then death suddenly and unex-
pectedly.

In its most unfavourable appearance, the symptoms are
cold and chills in the back, shoulders, and loins, stretching,
lassitude, and a disposition to lie down, with great fatigue
on the least exertion, a feeling of debility, anxiety, loss of
appetite, thirst, uneasiness of mind, rigours, and sometimes
stupor. This form is first remittent, and soon changes into
an intermittent fever, which is divided into three stages of
cold, hot, and sweating fits in a severe degree. The sensa-
tion during the shivering fit is like being pierced with darts.
This is followed, if it continues long, with hypochondriasis,
dyspepsia, hepatitis, and dysentery; and unless the fever
ceases with these symptoms, it speedily afterwards termi-
nates in death.

In regard to treatment, if the patient be robust, and has a
hard quick pulse, Europeans have recourse to bleeding, and
other means of reducing the system. When there is much
thirst and a hot dry skin, an anodyne antimonial draught is
sometimes found useful. If after this no change for the
better be observed, mercury is administered, so as to
produce ptyalism as speedily as possible, which in general
diminishes or removes every unfavourable symptom.
Tonics, such as cinchona bark or the sulphat of quinine, are
afterwards administered, and the patient recommended to
drink plentifully of rice-water, or some acidulated beverage.

HISTORY OF MADAGASCAR.

217

In the native mode of treatment, the remedies are few
and simple. When a person is seized with the fever, the
remedy is directed by the sikidy, or divination. Inquiry in
such cases is made of the sikidy, in which house the patient
must dwell. Then they make his couch, that he may lie
on the west of the hearth, near the fire, and administer
plenty of rice to eat; yea, they compel him to swallow
boiled rice, or any food, as they believe this to be essential
to his recovery.

The most beneficial remedy in the early stage of the
disorder is supposed to be rice-water, which produces per-
spiration, and is supposed to nourish the system during the
season of aversion to food. When the skin is dry and hot,
or a fit of fever comes on, the vapour-bath is used ; leaves,
supposed to possess medicinal qualities, being first boiled in
the water. This diminishes the force of the fever, and some-
times checks it entirely, if it be used half an hour before
the regular time of the appearance of the paroxysms which
come on every other day. When the effect of the bath is
thus salutary, the patient will then have an interval of
ninety-six hours in which to recruit his strength, instead of
only forty-eight. He will thereby be proportionably better
fortified against the next attack. Besides rice-water, an
infusion of herbs possessing aperient qualities are adminis-
tered ; to these they sometimes add a decoction of leaves,
which is exceedingly bitter, supposed to act as a tonic.

In addition to the use of the vapour-bath half an hour
before the paroxysm comes on, they take the warm bath
every evening, which, with a quantity of warm drink, never
fails to produce moisture on the skin, and gives the patient
rest in the night.

Capt. Le Sage, who visited the island on a special mission
from the government of Mauritius in 1816, and proceeded to

218

HISTORY OF MADAGASCAR.

the capital, lost most of his men by the ravages of the fever,
from which his own life at one time seemed in danger,
relates, in speaking of the treatment he received from the
natives, when so ill as to be unable to speak or move : —
" In this state, Hector (a native servant) made me swallow
some water in which different herbs had been boiled ; it
was very bitter, and made me vomit, which I had before
done in the morning. The Ovahs took me from my bed,
then, covering me well with blankets, placed a pot of boiling
water with different herbs under the blankets, and thus
kept me in the steam until I was nearly suffocated. It
having brought on slight perspiration, they replaced me in
the bed, and some time after I found myself somewhat
better ; three hours after, it was repeated, and I found myself
greatly relieved. In three hours more they laid me on my
back, and poured over me the same, rubbing me well with
the boiled herbs. I passed the night without sleep, but the
fever left me in the morning ; the fumigation was repeated,
and, after having kept myself well covered for two or three
hours, I felt so well as to be able to get up and eat break-
fast."

It is, from general observance and experience, considered
that hope, and cheerfulness, with a proper regimen, are
among the best remedies ; and that fear, grief, and fretfu!-
ness, have a tendency to bring on the fever, to increase the
violence of all its symptoms, and to protract its duration, if
it do not promote its fatal termination. A Frenchman at
Tamatave was, in consequence of fright, suddenly seized
with the fever : he gave himself up to despondency, and died
in five days.

When the symptoms assume an inflammatory character,
efforts are made to induce a remittent form ; if these are
successful, hopes of recovery are cherished. But if the

HISTORY OF MADAGASCAR.

219

inflammatory symptoms increase instead of diminishing, little
hope of recovery is entertained, and nature sinks rapidly ;
delirium, deafness, insensibility ensue, and death terminates
the scene.

Among the diseases to which the Malagasy are exposed
in common with the natives of the adjacent continent of
Africa, and other parts of the world, the small-pox, which
they call nendra, is the most formidable. How long this
fearful scourge, whose ravages are so fatal among uncivilized
communities, has existed in Madagascar, is not known, but
it was found there by the early missionaries, was reported
to have been known long before that period, and has
recently prevailed to an alarming extent ; many of the
natives, of every period of life, and of all ranks, from the
highest in authority, to the lowest slave, bearing in their
persons the unquestionable marks of the virulence with
which it sometimes prevails. Apoplexy, epilepsy, and
paralytic diseases but seldom occur, nor are pulmonary
disorders frequent. Inflammatory affections of the bowels
prevail at certain seasons, while, as might be expected from
the free use of unripe fruits and vegetables, and unsuitable
meat, few of the natives are exempt from stomach disorders,
produced generally by the crude and unwholesome nature,
and the large quantities, of their food. Dropsical complaints
frequently occur, and many are afflicted with a hard and
painful internal swelling in the diaphragm. Leprosy, which
they call boka, prevails, though the unhappy victims of this
hopeless disease are not numerous.*

* A restriction respecting lepers prevails in Madagascar, resembling that
enjoined by the Mosaic code. They are not allowed to mix with other
portions of the community, or to live in the towns or villages of the people,
but in separate houses erected expressly for them at some distance from all
others.

220

HISTORY OF MADAGASCAR.

Tumours of various kinds prevail, and a disease resem-
bling what is termed the white swelling, is also occasionally
seen, as well as more frequent instances of the elephan-
tiasis, lehibe tongotra. Instances of deafness or dumbness
rarely occur, though numbers suffer from diseases of the
eyes, and not a few are totally blind. This calamity is
supposed in many instances to occur from the winding of
silk. The toothache is not uncommon, while ulcers,
boiboik, and many of the scrofulous and cutaneous
diseases, are general, and frequently exhaust the patience
and baffle the skill of native and European doctors. The
general neglect of cleanliness perpetuates many diseases of
this class. Common catarrh and cough often prevail to a
great extent ; and though the hooping-cough is not known,
a disease resembling the measles, designated kitrotro, pro-
duces great ravages when it makes its appearance among
children. Few instances of insanity have been known in
the island, though several cases of idiotism have been met
with. Syphilitic affections are almost universal, and many
are afflicted with them from their birth to the end of their
lives ; while few of the inhabitants, either infant or adult,
appear exempt from the sufferings produced by worms.

Scarcely any cripples are to be seen in the island, and
there is reason to fear that infants exhibiting any deformity
or obvious defect at birth are secretly destroyed.

It has been already stated, that the Malagasy are almost
entirely unacquainted with the practice of medicine or
surgery ; and as far as enlightened or scientific views of the
one or the other are concerned, the healing art may be said
to be unknown.

There are, nevertheless, a number of simple remedies,
to which they are accustomed to resort in seasons of sick-
ness or casualty, frequently with the most favourable

HISTORY OF MADAGASCAR. 221

results. Many of their applications, there is reason to
believe, would be much more efficacious, were they not so
frequently accompanied with useless and often injurious
superstitious observances.

All diseases are supposed to be inflicted by an evil
spirit, either in consequence of evil destiny, the incanta-
tions of some enemy, or the neglect of some required rite
or ceremony. Hence, when disease appears, the friends
of the sufferer repair to the nearest mpanao ody, who,
by the sikidy, or divination, professes to affirm the cause
and nature of the malady, and specify the means that
are to be used for its removal. These sometimes consist
simply in change of air, by the removal of the patient from
one dwelling or village to another, or to some particular
spot distinctly specified : at other times by a faditra, or pre-
scribed offering, for the purpose of taking away the evil,
which it is imagined or pretended has occasioned the
disease. Whatever injunctions the sikidy may enforce in
this respect, are most scrupulously attended to, as they
would deem recovery almost impossible if the prescribed
faditra were neglected.

Frequently, in connexion with the faditra, the patient,
in recent times, has been instructed to apply to the Mis-
sionaries for foreign medicines, with the efficacy of which,
and superiority over their own, the natives near the capital
have lately become very generally acquainted. The ordi-
nary practice, however, is to direct the application of some
native remedy. The native practitioners in Madagascar
seem to be utterly ignorant of the nature of the circula-
tion of the blood ; and in the formation of their opinions,
and the prescribing of their remedies, no regard what-
ever is paid to the state of the patient as indicated by the
pulse.

222

HISTORY OF MADAGASCAR.

The pharmacopoeia of the Malagasy, though simple and
limited as it regards the substances embraced, admits of
considerable variety in their mode of administration. No
mineral preparations, excepting such as have been brought
by foreigners, are ever employed, unless in this class certain
kinds of red and white native earth, occasionally used, be
included. Gunpowder is sometimes used. Animal substances
are employed, but the Malagasy remedies are chiefly vege-
table, consisting of roots, stalks, leaves, flowers, and seeds
of different plants, or the bark of different shrubs and
trees, aromatic gums, of which their forests furnish many
varieties, and several kinds of moss and grass, tobacco, and
capsicum. With the medicinal qualities of many of the
indigenous productions of the country, the natives, espe-
cially the mpana ody, (Malagasy physicians and diviners;)
seem to be correctly acquainted. Barks, gums, leaves,
roots, &c, possessing an aperient, cathartic, diuretic, tonic,
or sedative property, are generally applied in cases in
which they are specifically required. Hence they are able
sometimes to arrest the progress of the fever, when the
symptoms of inflammation are violent and decisive. The
remedies taken internally consist of decoctions or infu-
sions. External applications are in the form of fomen-
tations, poultices, or ointments made by heating the fat of
animals.

As a general practice, the natives bathe less frequently
than those of many warm climates where water is equally
abundant as in Madagascar, but the vapour-bath is a fa-
vourite remedy with the sick, and frequently in the early
stages of the fever it is most successfully applied.

The manner of procuring the vapour-bath is singular,
and differs from that ordinarily pursued in this country or
in Russia, where the steam-bath is in more general use

HISTORY OF MADAGASCAR.

223

than perhaps in any other nation of Europe, and where the
room for baths is filled with steam by pouring water on a
heated stone ; it differs scarcely less from the rude and
simple mode adopted by the South Sea Islanders, who fix
the patient in a sort of open-bottomed chair, and place
him in that position over a pile of stones heated red-hot,
but covered with herbs and grass saturated with water.
The Malagasy seat the patient over a large earthen or
other pan containing water, spreading over him several
large native cloths, and then produce the quantity of steam
required by casting pieces of iron, or stones heated red-hot,
into the water.

Cold-bathing is occasionally resorted to as a means of
cleanliness, or for the sake of its refreshing effect in a state
of exhaustion and fatigue, but not with a view to its improv-
ing or preserving the general health. The natives do not
appear to have recourse to friction in cases of local disease,
but resort to a practice resembling shampooing, as this is
employed in the East, and among the South-Sea Islands, viz.
pressing the muscles of the limbs with the hand, and
pulling the joints during the incipient stages of disease, or
at times of debility from fatigue.

Native medicines, in great numbers and variety, are to be
bought in the markets. The mpanao ody, " makers of
charms,''" are the preparers and venders of medicines. The
nostrums are brought either ready for use, or so mixed up
with herbs, barks, and gums as to prevent the uninitiated
from discovering of what they really consist. This arises
from the anxiety of the respective venders to preserve to
themselves the exclusive advantage arising from the ex-
tensive use of medicine that may by accident become
popular, and be regarded as a specific in any particular
disease. Hence also, though each nostrum is designated

224 HISTORY OF MADAGASCAR.

by a particular name, and the disease for which, if the
venders are to be believed, it is an infallible remedy, are
distinctly stated, with an enumeration of its virtues almost
equal to the puffing of quack-medicines in more civilized
countries, its composition is kept a profound secret as long
as possible.

Besides the remedies applied when disease is actually
present, the Malagasy have what they consider as pre-
servative medicines, which are taken with a view of fortify-
ing the system against any pestilential atmosphere through
which they may be called to travel, and are always taken
as a precautionary measure when they are going to any of
the districts in which the fever prevails.

The chief and only sources whence relief or preservation
is expected, are from the infallibility of their sikidy, or divi-
nation, and the efficacy of the faditra, or offering, to remove
the evil, or cause of suffering, as they suppose every malady
to be a judicial infliction by the god or gods whom they
have offended, or the effects of the spells and incantations
of sorcery employed by some malevolent enemy to procure
their destruction. Surrendering themselves, under this
impression, to the guidance of their diviners, they dispense
with the application of any medicinal remedy, and confi-
dently expect a pain in the head or the face, or any affec-
tion of that part of the body, to be removed by simply
wearing an amulet of stone or wood on the forehead, or a
charm on the breast suspended from a string of beads
around the neck.

Their preservation from pain and disease, though they
use the medicine prescribed, they also ascribe to their
imaginary gods. Ramahavaly, the great national idol of the
Hovas, is their Esculapius, and, among other appellations,
is addressed as " The Doctor," or curer of diseases. When

HISTORY OF MADAGASCAR.

225

the array is about to pass through a country in which
either the small-pox, or fever, or other disease, has prevailed,
the idol is carried through the ranks, attended by the
idol-keepers or priests, who offer him their prayers, and
sprinkle holy-water on the troops, as a means of security
against the infections to which they might be exposed.
Whenever any pestilential disease breaks out in the vil-
lages near the capital, or makes its appearance among the
inhabitants of the latter, the people repair to the place
of public resort ; and when assembled, the idol is carried
in a procession similar to that which attended it through
the ranks of the army, and the people are all sprinkled
with holy-water in the name of Ramahavaly, and afterwards
return to their respective habitations, assuring themselves
of security from disease, until some neglect of enjoined
observances, some offence against the evil spirit, or offering
to the sorcerers, should expose them to relentless ven-
geance and destruction.

226

HISTORY OF MADAGASCAR.

CHAP. IX.

Practice of surgery among the natives — Method of treating wounds and
fractures — Tooth-drawing — Native mode of cupping — Bleeding — Anec-
dote of Radama — Feast on occasion of his recovery — Treatment of the
sick in general — Influence of divination in the selection of means of reco-
very— The faditra, or offering to remove pollution — The sorona, or sup-
plicatory offering — Usages in reference to death — Mourning — Addresses
to the deceased — Watching the corpse — Presents of money to the chief
mourner — Method of disposing of the body — Manner of interment — Cus-
toms at funerals in the southern part of the island described by Drury —
Property deposited in the tombs — Imagined pollution from touching a
corpse — Badges of mourning — Period of its duration — The manao afana,
or slaughter of bullocks, to avert evil from the deceased — Criminals not
allowed the rite of burial — Places of sepulture — Size and nature of their
tombs — Costly and gorgeous ceremonies of mourning on occasion of the
death of Radama ; description of his coffin of silver, mausoleum, &c. ;
money buried with him ; number of cattle slain — Cenotaphs — Singular
custom of bringing home to the family the bones of those slain in war-
Monumental pillars.

In the judicious and successful practice of surgery, the
Malagasy have scarcely advanced further than in the dis-
pensing of medicine. Their operations are certainly less
rude and perilous than those of the South Sea islanders, but
are scarcely performed on better principles. Many have
perished, whose lives, operations the most simple and easy
to a scientific practitioner, there is reason to believe, might
have preserved — such operations as those required to reduce
a dislocation, or to give relief in dropsical complaints ; but
notwithstanding these deficiencies, a simple kind of what
may be termed native surgery, has long been in use among
them.

HISTORY OF MADAGASCAR.

2:27

Inoculation in case of small-pox, with a view to abate the
virulence of the disease, was introduced by some of the
early foreign residents in the island, but under circum-
stances so disadvantageous as to excite strong prejudices
against its continuance, or the introduction of the more
effectual antidote to its fearful ravages, vaccination, which
was subsequently attempted.

We may gather some idea of their heartless cruelty,
and of the dreadful apprehensions with which the Malagasy
regarded the approach of this terrific scourge, from the fact
that it was their practice formerly, when the small-pox
made its appearance in the capital, or in any of the towns
or villages in the provinces, to drive the unhappy man first
afflicted therewith, to a distance from their dwellings, and
either stone him to death, or bury him alive in a grave
previously dug for the purpose, with a view to prevent the
spread of the contagion. In the reign of Radama, this
barbarous practice was discontinued, and in its place, as a
measure of safety, all who were affected with this frightful
malady were removed to a distance from the villages, where
they were lodged in temporary habitations, and furnished
with food until perfectly recovered, when they were per-
mitted to return to their former dwellings. The Mission-
aries have great reason to believe, that during the periods
in which the small-pox has prevailed, no other cause,
excepting those wars in which the adult population was
exterminated, has destroyed so many lives ; and ex-
tensive tracts of the country, now almost without inha-
bitants, are said to have been depopulated by its fearful
ravages.

Wounds from a spear or bullet, even where the latter
may be lodged in the body, they attempt to heal by washing
the wound sometimes with a decoction of herbs, but chiefly

Q 2

223

HISTORY OF MADAGASCAR.

by closing the apertures, and bandaging the parts, without
attempting to extract the substance that may be lodged
within.

In setting fractures of the limbs, particularly of the arms,
they were generally more successful than in other opera-
tions. When the skull or the thigh was broken, which
was occasionally the case in battle, the wounded were left
to perish, without any attempt to preserve life; but in
other cases the bones were drawn carefully together as near
as possible in their original form ; splints of bamboo were
applied to the limb for the purpose of confining it in the
proper position, and the whole carefully bandaged with
native cloth. This method of treatment was often suc-
cessful.

Dislocations of the joints were occasionally reduced ; and
it is stated by the natives, that amputations have been suc-
cessfully performed by the mpanao ody ; no instances of
the kind, however, have come under the notice of the
Missionaries. Tooth-ache is of frequent occurrence, for
which all the native remedies were generally ineffectual ;
but after an instrument had been made by Mr. Chick, the
smith connected with the Mission, many were relieved by
the removal of the diseased tooth.

In general, the natives manifest great aversion to bleeding,
although not unacquainted with the beneficial effects by
which it has been followed ; and occasionally they have re-
course to a rude sort of cupping process, w hich they effect by
placing the wide aperture of the end of a horn on the part
affected, and then drawing out the air with the mouth
through a small perforation at the point of the horn ; and,
having by this simple means raised the skin, they remove
the horn, and puncture the skin in two or three places with
the point of a knife, repeating the operation until a suffi-

HISTORY OF MADAGASCAR.

229

cient quantity of blood has been discharged. Whether
this practice is one of their own inventions, or merely an
imitation of cupping which they have seen practised by
Europeans, is not known; it is a last resort, and whatever
benefits it may be supposed to confer, its application to any
whose lives are considered of importance, excites the most
painful alarm. In illustration of this, the following occur-
rence, which took place shortly after the arrival of the first
Missionaries, may be adduced.

In the year 1820, when Mr. Jones was residing at the
capital, Radama fell from his horse, and, though not
seriously injured, great confusion prevailed among the at-
tendants on the king's person, and the inmates of the palace.
The domestics ran for the Missionary, but were all too much
alarmed to state what they wanted, or do more than inform
him that the king was injured, and perhaps dying.
Mr. Jones followed them, and entered the palace, where the
king was lying on the floor, his face and neck being
covered with blood. Fearing the worst consequence from
the loss of royal blood, especially if the supply was not
kept up, a number of live fowls were brought, and some of
the attendants were busily employed in cutting off the heads
of the fowls, and pouring the blood from their decapitated
trunks into the king's mouth; others were making loud
lamentations, embracing and kissing his feet; and others
were fanning him, and wailing over him as already dead.
Mr. Jones recommended their not adding any more blood
from the fowls, and proposed, instead, to take some from the
king. Violently opposing this, the attendants exclaimed,
" \Yhat ! take away more blood, when the king has lost
so much already ? no — let the sikidy be consulted." The
king, though feeble, heard what was going on; and such
was his confidence in the Missionary, that he said, in

230

HISTORY OF MADAGASCAR.

a low tone, " Bleed me ; let the sikidy not be consulted :
bleed me immediately." This, the attendants refused to
allow, and still continued cutting off the heads of the fowls,
and pouring their blood into the king's mouth. Aided
by Messrs. Robin and Brady, foreigners residing at the
capital, the king was placed in a chair facing the door, and
Mr. Jones prepared to bleed him ; but when about to open
the vein, a principal officer, standing by, seized his arm, and
prevented it Mr. Jones, however, kept his hand so firmly
fixed, that the moment his right arm was released, he
accomplished his purpose. When the blood appeared, a
cry was raised to stop it — this was refused — the king fainted
— and the cry was repeated with gestures indicating frantic
distraction. Radama, however, soon revived, appeared
better, and was put to rest. The sikidy was then consulted,
to ascertain who might enter the house, and approach his
majesty. The diviners declared that the sikidy directed
that none should enter but Mr. Jones, two other foreign-
ers, and about twelve attendants, including the king's
mother and three of his wives. The king continued to
recover ; and when the benefits resulting from bleeding were
thus apparent, the people poured their benedictions on the
Missionary as heartily as they had before opposed him ;
and, in order that the advantage might not be enjoyed
solely by the king, they strongly solicited Mr. Jones to
bleed them, in anticipation of a fall, or other accident
which might render it necessary.

In a few days the king appeared to have completely
recovered from the effects of his fall, and gave, in the
course of the ensuing month, a public entertainment on
occasion of his restoration.

A large tent was erected in the palace-yard, beneath which
tables and seats were fixed. The feast was amply supplied

HISTORY OF MADAGASCAR. 231

with provisions, wines, &c. ; and the whole was brilliantly
illuminated with lamps.

The guests were admitted by tickets, and entered at a
signal given by the firing of cannon. For the king and
part of his family, a table was arranged in the centre ; for
his wives, a table to the north ; and for the Europeans, one
to the south ; the female guests were placed east and
west ; the king's maroserana, (an order of nobles who have
the privilege of access to the sovereign at all times,) to the
north; and the judges of the capital were seated to the
south. Dinner was brought in by the military, every one
putting down his dish " by word of command." All were
in high glee ; and Radama, enjoying the most buoyant
spirits, kept up the scene of mirth and festivity till cock-
crowing announced to the guests the propriety of bending
their way homewards.

But, to return to their treatment of diseases. In cases
of serious illness, the utmost attention is paid to the
patient by the members and relations of his family, some of
whom always remain to nurse and attend on him. In this
respect their conduct presents a pleasing and striking con-
trast to that of the South Sea islanders, and other uncivi-
lized communities. No one is carried down with cruel
apathy to a river's brink, and left to perish there. The
sikidy is repeatedly consulted, though this is attended with
with some expense ; and its directions are promptly obeyed.
" Change of air," seems an important recommendation
with the sikidy, as patients are frequently removed, by its
instructions, from one house to another, and from one vil-
lage to another.

No trait in the character of the Malagasy is more credit-
able to their humanity, and more gratifying to our bene-

232

HISTORY OF MADAGASCAR.

volent feelings, than the kind, patient, and affectionate
manner in which they attend upon the sick. Every thing
within the compass of their means, that can administer to
their comfort, mitigate their sufferings, or favour recovery,
is provided. Wives frequently watch on the same couch
on which their husbands are suffering under the fever,
until the dreadful malady seizes them, when, on account of
their great exhaustion and fatigue, they frequently become
its victims.

The superstitions of the Malagasy unfold no bright
futurity beyond the grave, but leave all in gloom and
uncertainty. Hence the relatives, out of kind regard for
the sufferer, carefully abstain from the mention of death,
until its speedy approach seems inevitable.

Sometimes, besides the application of medicine, change
of place, &c, the sikidy directs that a faditra be made ;
that is, an offering for the removal of the evil which is
supposed to have occasioned the disease.

The faditra is frequently in itself of a very trifling
nature, perhaps a little grass, or an herb, the name of which
must be carefully specified; perhaps a small quantity of
earth, taken from the ground at a spot measured by a given
number of feet from the patient's door ; or it may be
merely the water with which he rinses his mouth ! These
being simply thrown away, according to the direction of
the sikidy, are supposed to bear away with them, in some
inexplicable manner, the causes of the malady in question,
or else to counteract the spell by which, from sorcery or
some unknown cause, the malady has arisen.

In addition to the faditra, the sikidy generally directs
some offering to be made of a supplicatory nature. This
is called the sdrona, and consists of a few beads, or orna-

HISTORY OF MADAGASCAR.

233

ments, or herbs, and, in some cases, the singing of a child.
In these offerings, prayer is presented, addressed to God,*
to the Vazimba, and to the manes, or spirits, of their
ancestors. And when the symptoms assume a decidedly
unfavourable aspect, and the post of observation is dark-
ening every hour, and hopes of life are surrendered,
arrangements are usually made for the disposal of property :
the heir is appointed, and the dying man, if a parent, com-
mends his children to surviving relatives, frequently under
evident anxiety, from the gloom and uncertainty surrounding
the unknown future, upon which his reluctant and often
agitated spirit is about to enter. Unlike the Christian,
to whom death is the portal to immortality, the faint and
feeble Malagasy meets death as an unw elcome doom, which
he can neither avert nor delay.

After it is ascertained that death has taken place, the
relations and friends maintain the absolute control over
their feelings, as the law requires, till evening, f when they
give unrestricted vent to their grief in weeping, accom-
panied by the most frantic wailing and lamentations.
Whether from custom or sympathy, or both, so many of the
friends of the deceased attend on those occasions, that not
only is the house filled, but many others sit around it out-
side, expressing their sadness by tears and the most melan-
choly cries. All wear their hair dishevelled. The rela-
tives also throw ashes upon their heads, and, though they
do not literally clothe themselves in sackcloth, wear only
their most coarse and worthless garments, making their
grief in appearance at least the most piteous and affecting.

* An account of the ideas attached to this term and service by the
Malagasy, will be given in a subsequent part of the work.

f Should a person die at noon, or even in the morning, no one is allowed
to mourn till after sunset.

234

HISTORY OF MADAGASCAR.

Some of the natives actually tear their hair from their
heads, and violently smite upon their breasts. They are
also accustomed to address themselves in an impassioned
manner to the deceased in terms resembling the following :
" O ! fetch me, my relative, my beloved relation, let me
accompany you in your path; come for me, for now am
I wretched indeed, and I have no one here to be what you
were to me !"

As soon as the first paroxysms of grief have subsided,
a number of the friends present confer respecting the
interment, the quantity of cloth in which the corpse is to
be folded, and the number of cattle to be killed. If the
deceased have left property of his own, it is taken
for the purchase of the cloth, &c. required; if not, they
borrow, and immediately send a person to the market to
obtain the articles.

In general, the quantity of cloth used, and of bullocks
killed, and the number of muskets fired, all depend upon
the amount of property the deceased has died worth. The
house in which the corpse lies is now lined with cloth, and
clean matting is spread on the floor. No kind of work is
performed in it till after the interment, and the termination
of the family mourning.

An ox is usually killed in the evening after the death
has taken place, and certain portions of it allotted to the
slaughterer of the animal, to the slave who cuts it up, to
the owner of the axe used on the occasion, to the owner of
the cord by which the animal had been tied, and then to
the assembled relatives of the deceased.

An adjoining house is appropriated to the use of the
guests during the night, and meat and rice provided for
them. A portion is also prepared for those who are
appointed to watch the corpse during the night, and for

HISTORY OF MADAGASCAR

235

those on whom the duty of mourning will devolve in the
morning.

For those appointed to watch the corpse, the meat is
minced, cooked in a large vessel, and then brought into
the house.

The mourners assemble in the morning, and the females,
having wept over the deceased, retire to the adjoining
house, called "Tranolahy," to partake of the provisions. The
men collect a little money to present to the chief mourner,
called the fahankanina, i. e., " causing food." In pre-
senting it, they offer some apology of this kind : — " Do not
attach any blame to us on account of the mere trifle which
we offer in wiping away the tears of the family." The
person accepting the donation, replies, " No ! there is no
blame, no censure whatever ; and may the like calamity not
befall you !" This finished, the men retire to partake of the
provisions, and then send to the grave, to prepare it finally
for the interment.

In the greatest number of instances, the body is in the
mean time wrapped in the cloth used as the grave-clothes,
or shroud, which is always a red lamba, or cloth. The
corpse is then placed on a bier, and carried to the grave.
As it is taken out of the house, it is lifted over a bullock
recently killed for that purpose, and over another, (sup-
posing in both cases the party can afford the expense,)
before it is immediately lowered into the grave. The
females sing a funeral dirge as the corpse is carried to
the grave ; and at the time of the interment, on reaching
the place of sepulture, the corpse is placed in the grave
without any further observances or delay. It is then
covered with earth, so that it resembles a newly-made
grave within the tomb, and a quantity of fresh charcoal
placed on the corpse to resist the too rapid process of

•236

HISTORY OF MADAGASCAR.

decomposition. The bier itself is left by the side of the
grave, and a new one prepared on every new occasion. It
is considered ceremonially polluted ; no one would venture
to make use of it even for fire-wood.

Drury, who was wrecked near St. Augustine's Bay, and
was sixteen years in the south-western part of the island, from
which he returned to England in 1717, gives the following
account of the general observances at burials in that part
of the country : —

" When any one is dead, all the relations and neighbours
come to the house ; the women make doleful lamentations,
and the men assist in the necessary preparations for the
funeral. In the first place, they pitch upon a tree for a
coffin : after that, a cow or an ox is killed, and some of
the blood sprinkled upon it, imploring at the same time
their forefathers, and the demons and demi-gods, to aid
and assist them, and take care that the tree does not split
in the falling, or that any one be not hurt either by cutting
or felling it. When the tree is down, they cut it about
a foot longer than the corpse, and split it directly length-
wise, (for they always make choice of a tree which they
know will split after this manner,) and dig both parts
hollow like two troughs. It is then carried to the house,
the corpse being in the mean time washed, and wrapped
up in a lamba, or frequently in two, and sewed together.
There is frankincense, or a gum much like it, burning all
the time in the house. They seldom keep the corpse
above one day, especially in hot weather. They put the
corpse in the troughs, closing them together, and carry it
upon six men's shoulders. Every family has a burying-
place of their own, which no one dares infringe or break
into ; nor does any one indeed attempt it : this is enclosed
and fenced round with sticks like palisadoes. When they

HISTORY OF MADAGASCAR.

237

come near the place, the corpse is set down, and then they
proceed to the rest of the ceremony ; this is — to make four
tires, one at each corner, on the outside of the burying-
place. On these tires they burn the cow, or ox, which was
killed before for that purpose : then they divide it into
quarters) which are all consumed in the flames. After this,
they sprinkle frankincense upon the coals, and spread them
all about. This being done, the chief or eldest of the
family goes close to the entrance of the burying-place, and
ballots aloud several times; after a short pause, he calls
upon all the dead there deposited, commencing at the
earliest and proceeding to the last, and each one distinctly
by his name ; and in the conclusion tells them, that there
is a grandchild or near relation come to lie amongst them,
and that he hopes they will receive him as a friend. Then
the gate is opened, and two or three persons are sent in to
dig the grave, which is made, for the generality, seven or
eight feet deep, and the corpse is placed in it, and covered
over with the earth, without any further ceremony. None
are permitted to enter here, but some of the nearest rela-
tions, and the bearers ; and the door is immediately shut
fast again. There is commonly a crowd of people without,
who are busy in carving up and dividing among themselves
the oxen that have been killed for distribution, if it be a
great and rich family that can afford it; but the poorer
sort cannot gratify their friends in so bountiful a manner.
They generally visit this burying-place once a year, to clear
it from weeds, and make it clean ; but never enter it till
they have first burnt a cow or bullock before it."

It is customary at the interment of any of the royal
family, or of the nobles, to deposit large quantities of pro-
perty in the tomb with the corpse, especially of such
articles as the deceased was known to be attached to

238 HISTORY OF MADAGASCAR.

during life. Affection prompts to this, as a means of
administering comfort or affording gratification to the de-
parted. On returning home, the chief mourner, who is
the nearest relative of the deceased, immediately washes
himself; some particular kinds of grass are also brought,
and dipped in water, in which the several members of the
family wash themselves. The garments which have been
worn on the occasion must also undergo purification, which
is effected by dipping their corners in water.

During the season of mourning, which in some of its
requirements continues twelve months, the bereaved family
absent themselves from dances and other public amuse-
ments ; but the only badges of mourning, excepting the use
of inferior clothing, already referred to, consists in putting
off all ornaments, and neither anointing nor braiding the
hair, but allowing it to remain loose and dishevelled, in
which state it is never seen but on the members of the
family in which a death has recently occurred.

The Malagasy seem to imagine that some degree of
humiliation and self-denial is becoming during the season
appropriated to mourning for departed relatives, which, it
appears, varies in continuance according to the rank of the
deceased, or the relationship of survivors ; hence, while, for
some, mourning is continued twelve months, for a son or
daughter six months is the usual time. Not only is the
hair dishevelled, all oils or perfumes neglected, the looking-
glasses in their houses turned towards the wall, but they avoid
sitting on a chair, as that is by many deemed an unsuitable
indulgence during this season of grief.

The national mourning for the sovereign extends through
twelve months, unless the period be shortened by a special
order of the government, as was the case after the death of
Radama. During the season of national mourning, all

HISTORY OF MADAGASCAR.

239

labour excepting the culture of the soil is suspended, all
amusements are prohibited, and all means of indulgence in
ease or gratification are laid aside ; no one is allowed to ride
in the sedan kind of chairs, or to sit in a chair ; the nation
is required to assume the aspect and adopt the habits of
mourning and sadness.

A ceremony called the Manao afana, takes place in
general a short time after the funeral. The ceremony con-
sists principally in killing a number of oxen, distributing
the meat among the relatives and visitors, and eating it
under an indefinite idea, that in some way this service is
the means of averting evil from the deceased, or preserving
him from the effects of any malevolent feelings which may
have been entertained against him during his life. A small
contribution of money is again presented to the chief
mourner, accompanied with an apologetic address similar
to those used at the time of interment This money is
called the Fialana, i. e. token of departing or leaving ; either
implying the family's taking a final leave, a last adieu of
the deceased, or the relations by this ceremony closing the
funeral obsequies, and bidding adieu to the chief mourner
as the representative of the family. On the occasion now
under consideration, the chief mourner offers portions of the
meat in return to those who have presented the Fialana.
If the contribution of money has been large, the distribu-
tion of meat is large also ; if small, the return is the same ,
and it is generally evident that some who attend on these
occasions express their pretended sorrow for the gratifica-
tion of sharing in the provisions distributed, and not from
sympathy with the survivors in their affliction.

Meat given away on account of the dead is called, hena
ratsy, i. e. meat unholy; and not any portion of it may be
given to the dogs. What is not eaten must be buried.

240 HISTORY OF MADAGASCAR.

Should any persons be carrying it on the high road, they
must retire out of the way while a member of the royal
family passes them, or the bearers of any thing belonging
to the court, or of any article intended for the use of the
royal family.

At the ceremony of Manao afana, it is usual for a senior
relative of the family to address to the children of the
deceased, an admonitory and impressive speech. This is
delivered with considerable formality and apparent gravity.
The children are formally arranged, the eldest being placed
to the north,* and the youngest towards the south, a senior
relative commences, and continues his exhortation generally
in something like the following terms. "I am about to
address you, arranging a few words to deliver a kabary
(message) to you ; let blame be taken from me, let me not
be censured — I am rising first to speak, and am not able to
sustain censure, for blame is like the rain above us, which,
though we see it not, may fall, and injure us, 'tis as a smooth
road where we may slide without perceiving it, 'tis as a
stone in a path, against which we may stumble without
being aware ; wherefore do not blame me in saying, " Let
not the father be disgraced by his descendants ; let there
not be a failure in due service ; let not the young ox be
always lean and small ; let not the young rice-plants be
stunted in their growth ; let not the performance of what is
just and right be neglected." The speaker then expresses
some customary salutations to the king and royal family,
and afterwards proceeds. " Here are the relations come
from the north and south, from the east and west. What

* In the interior of the island, particularly in Ankova, a feeling of venera-
tion is associated with the north side of the houses, as the part sacred to
their ancestors. Should the spirits of the departed visit their former abodes,
the northern part of the house is the place in which they would be heard.

HISTORY OF MADAGASCAR.

241

you have done is highly proper and gratifying. Ye have
made no delay. Ye have borrowed what was deficient, and
ye have shewn no partiality, but in your respect for the
dead, ye bury the poor equally as the rich."

The son replies to the address. "Take ye confidence —
my father has left me; and whatever he did towards you,
I shall persevere in adhering to it in the steadiest manner,
and preferring to do more rather than withdraw. Here are
the heads left — here the mother — here the sisters — take
confidence, for ye have me."

The speeches having terminated, the eldest son, now the
representative of the family, the bearer of its honours and
its responsibilities, presents the largest bullock he can
obtain as a donation to the company, and to the relations
who may not yet have received a gift at his hand. Each
one takes his share, and all retire to their respective
homes.

It is evident from various circumstances, that the
Malagasy, like the Jews, and some other nations, attach
ideas of ceremonial uncleanness or pollution to a corpse.
No corpse is permitted to be carried to the grave along the
high road or principal thoroughfare in the capital, which is
thought to be in some measure sacred. Nevertheless, the
same road is frequently saturated with the blood of bullocks
killed there for the adjacent market, or with the blood of
human victims destroyed in obedience to their false and
cruel divinations.

No one who has attended a funeral is permitted to
enter into the court-yard of the palace till eight days have
elapsed, and then he must bathe before he can be admit-
ted. In all cases, a total or partial ablution of the
garments of the mourners must take place on returning
from a grave.

242

HISTORY OF MADAGASCAR.

No one except the sovereign is permitted to continue, if
ill, within the precincts of the palace, in case death should
ensue. No member of the royal family may approach any
corpse, excepting it be the corpse of a member of the
family, or one recognized as a most intimate friend. Radama
waived these national observances in his own attentions to
the late James Hastie, Esq., during his illness, and forming-
part of his funeral procession ; but this was a mark of that
monarch's particular esteem for the British agent, and was
equally honourable to the king and his deceased friend.

The rites of burial — simple and soothing as the expecta-
tion of them may be to the benighted mind of the dying
Malagasy, who, from his superstitious belief, cherishes a
hope that, if duly performed, his ghost will not associate
with wild cats and owls, creatures of ill omen, and with
evil spirits, but enter on a state of repose or enjoyment —
are not always rendered. And consolatory as the perform-
ance of them may be to survivors, and high as may be the
respect which their due observance secures for the children
and relatives, who expect the same honours to be paid to
their own remains — cases in which the sanguinary and
heartless usages of the country do not allow them, are
frequent. Criminals sentenced to death by the sove-
reign, and those pronounced guilty of witchcraft by the
ordeal, after being barbarously put to death, are thrown
down a steep rock, or left on the plain on which they have
been killed, a prey for the hungry dogs which prowl about
the capital or village, and mingle among the crowd who
throng the path along which the miserable culprit is led
to execution. These animals are frequently seen contend-
ing with savage ferocity, strengthened by hunger, for
their prey, before the spectators have retired, or the
shades of night cover as with a veil the revolting scenes

HISTORY OF MADAGASCAR.

243

which their voraciousness presents. It is seldom, if ever,
that more than part of the bones of the unhappy wretches
who have been denied the protection of a grave, remain on
the ground on the following morning.

Another unhappy and pitiable class are the lepers; though
they are buried, yet no rites or ceremonies are allowed on the
occasion. The grave is dug, not among the tombs of their
ancestors, but in some unenclosed place, and the body, care-
fully bound up, is literally rolled or thrown in any manner
that can be done without touching it. Sometimes, after
being in the earth for twelve months, or a longer period,
during which it is supposed it has been undergoing a puri-
fying process, it is dug up, when the bones are cleaned,
wrapped in cloth, and deposited, with prescribed ceremo-
nies, among the sepulchres of the family.

In the case of the bodies of those to whom the greatest
respect was paid, and whose tombs are regarded as the
most sacred places, the Malagasy do not appear to have
had recourse to embalming the whole body, or even pre-
serving the heads of the deceased, as is practised in some
parts of the East, or in New Zealand and the South Sea
islands. They are nevertheless able to preserve the bodies
of the members of the royal family for a considerable time
after death, chiefly by the plentiful use of gum-benzoin, or
other powerful aromatic gums, of which abundance is
found in the forests of the island.

Few of the general indications of the peculiar customs of
the Malagasy are more remarkable than their places of
sepulture. Most of their graves are family tombs or vaults.
In their construction, much time and labour, and some-
times considerable property, are expended. The latter is
regulated by the wealth of the proprietor. In erecting a
tomb, the first consideration is the selection of an eligible

r 2

244

HISTORY OF MADAGASCAR.

spot. Publicity and elevation are their two principal requi-
sites. Sometimes a tomb is placed immediately in front of
the house of the person by whom it is built, or it occupies
a conspicuous place by the road-side. At other times,
tombs are built on an elevation in the midst of the capital,
or village, or where two or more roads meet, and very
frequently they are built on the outskirts of the towns
and villages.

The site having been chosen, a large excavation is
made in the earth, and the sides and roof of the vault
are formed of immense slabs of stone. Incredible labour
is often employed in bringing these slabs from a distance
to the spot where the grave is to be constructed. When
they are fixed in their appointed positions, each side or
wall of a vault or tomb, six or seven feet high, and ten
or twelve feet square, is often formed of a single stone of
the above dimensions. A sort of subterranean room is thus
built; which, in some parts of the country, is lined with
rough pieces of timber. The stones are covered with
earth to the height of from fifteen to eighteen inches.
This mound of earth is surrounded by a curb of stone-
work, and a second and third parapet of earth is formed
within the lower curb or coping, generally from twelve to
eighteen inches in height, each diminishing in extent
as they rise one above another, forming a flat pyramidal
mound of earth, composed of successive terraces with stone-
facing and border, and resembling, in appearance, the
former heathen temples of the South Sea islanders, or the
pyramidal structures of the aborigines of South America:
the summit of the grave is ornamented with large pieces of
rose or white quartz. The stone- work exhibits, in many
instances, very good workmanship, and reflects great credit
on the skill of the native masons. Some of these rude

HISTORY OF MADAGASCAR. 245

structures are stated to be twenty feet in width, and fifty
feet long.

The large slabs used in forming the tombs, as described
already, are usually of granite or sienite. The natives
have long known how to detach blocks of stone from
the mountain mass by means of burning cow-dung on the
part they wish to remove, and dashing cold water along
the line on the stone they have heated. Having been
thus treated, the stone easily separates in thick layers,
and is forced up by means of levers. " Odies," charms,
are employed in marking out the desired dimensions of
the slab, and to their virtue is foolishly attributed the
splitting of the stone, though they well know that not all
the " odies" in the kingdom would split one stone, if the
usual heat were not applied. When the slab is detached,

246

HISTORY OF MADAGASCAR.

bands of straw are fastened round it, to prevent breakage
in the removal. Strong ropes are attached to the slab,
and, amidst the boisterous vociferations of the workmen,
it is dragged away from the quarry. In ascending a hill,
they place wooden rollers under the stone, and move them
forward as it advances.

Sometimes five or six hundred men are employed in drag-
ging a single stone. A man usually stands on the stone,
acting as director or pioneer. He holds a cloth in his
hand, and waives it, with loud and incessant shouts, to
animate those who are dragging the ponderous block. At
his shout they pull in concert, and so far his shouting
is of real service. Holy water is also sprinkled on the
stone as a means of facilitating its progress, till at length,
after immense shouting, sprinkling, and pulling, it reaches
its destination.

When the tomb is erected for a person deceased, but not
yet buried, no noise is made in dragging the stones for its
construction. Profound silence is regarded as indicating
the respect of the parties employed. In some cases a corpse
is buried in a dwelling-house pro tempore, till the new
tomb is finished, when it is disinterred, and removed to
its final resting-place with the usual ceremonies.

It has been already observed, that lepers are not interred
in the burying-places of the families to which they belong ;
but after they have been under ground a year, the relatives
are permitted to take their bodies up, and deposit them with
the customary ceremonies among the sepulchres of their
ancestors.

The tombs are occasionally washed with a mixture of
lime or white clay ; and, though literally " whited sepul-
chres,'' furnish to the eye of a traveller a pleasing variety
in the objects around him. The entrance to the vault is

HISTORY OF MADAGASCAR.

247

covered by a large upright block of stone, which is removed
when a corpse is taken in, and fixed in its former position
at the termination of the ceremony. Small native fans
(fikopana) are used in driving insects from the corpse
while it remains in the house, and on the road to the
grave ; these are left stuck in the earth over the grave.
High poles are fixed in the earth around the grave, and
the horns of the bullocks killed at the interment, are
suspended on the tops of the poles, to indicate the wealth
of the family, or the value of the tribute thus rendered
by survivors to the memory of the departed.

In some cases the horns are stuck in the earth at the
corners of the tomb, or fixed in the form of a fence in the
earth round the edge of the parapet. This is considered

248

HISTORY OF MADAGASCAR.

highly ornamental. A pole with a white flag at the top,
which had been carried in the funeral procession, is also
frequently placed at the east end of the tomb. Formerly
the flag consisted of plain white cloth, but since the know-
ledge of letters has been introduced, the flags in many
instances have the names of the deceased, and the dates
of their death, exhibited in letters of blue or other dark-
coloured cloth.

Those who are desirous of paying great respect to their
deceased relatives, and of preserving their tombs in good
repair, keep the ground immediately around the graves
in neat and excellent order, preserving it perfectly smooth
and level, and free from weeds.

At the capital, and throughout the interior, the tombs
are unenclosed ; but the tribes on the greater part of the
coast surround their graves by a strong, but neat and
durable, paling, or other fence of wood.

Many of the Malagasy begin to erect their tombs in
early life, and make their completion through a series of
years one of the most important objects of their existence,
deeming a splendid or costly depository for their mouldering
bodies, the most effectual means of being held in honourable
remembrance by posterity.

This practice induces the belief, that in the creed of a
Malagasy, the most complete preparation of a grave con-
stituted the best preparation for it, the grand means of
securing bliss beyond the tomb. The reverse, however,
we know to be the fact, so far as a future state is con-
templated by the aid of that revelation which alone brings
life and immortality to light ; but an immortality of fame
was the only immortality after which the Malagasy were
taught to aspire. They knew no higher, and pursued no
worthier object.

HISTORY OF MADAGASCAR. 249

The sentiments of the nation on this subject, the im-
portance attached to profusion of expenditure, and gorgeous
and imposing pageantries in mourning, are most distinctly
exhibited whenever the death of a sovereign takes place.
In the number of oxen killed, and amount of property
consumed, the funeral and mourning ceremonies observed
at the death of Radama's father probably exceeded all that
had previously taken place in the country, as it is supposed
that about 10,000 head of cattle were slaughtered on that
occasion. But the observances on that occasion were greatly
surpassed by those which followed the decease of the late
monarch Radama, which took place at the capital in the
month of August, 1828.

On the morning of the 3d of August, it was officially
proclaimed that the king " had retired," " had gone to his
fathers ;" and it was ordered that all, of every rank and
age, male and female, with a few exceptions, should shave
the head ; that the females should weep ; that no showy dress
nor ornament should be worn ; that no perfume or unguent
should be employed ; that no dress but the lamba should be
worn, and that not allowed to trail on the ground. It was
further ordered, that no one should ride on a horse, or be
carried in a chair ; that the work at the ordinary handicrafts
should be suspended ; that no one should salute another on
meeting, nor play on any instrument, nor dance, nor sing ;
that no one should sleep on a bed, but on the ground ; that
no one should sit on a chair, or use a table ; that no one
should use ardent spirits — and the punishment of decapi-
tation was threatened to those who should violate this last
prohibition.

The walls of the palace, and of Besakana, a house called
the throne of the kingdom, were covered with white cloth,
and splendidly ornamented within with tapestries of crimson

250

HISTORY OF MADAGASCAR.

and purple silk. The gateways were hung with scarlet
cloth and pink silk. The roof of the house in which the
king had died was covered with crimson cloth ; besides
which, large quantities of rich gold lace and fringe were em-
ployed in the decorations. Troops were stationed round
the court-yard. The officers and band wore a white lamba
over their uniforms, white being the mourning colour in
Madagascar, and crape on the arm. Cannon and musketry
were fired every half hour. Immense numbers of bullocks
were distributed by the queen among the people.

On the morning of the 11th, the firing of cannon and
musketry commenced at daybreak, and continued every
half hour through the day ; and at eight o'clock the military
assembled in the palace-yard, every avenue towards which
was thronged with the tens of thousands assembled; but
the greatest order prevailed. The space within was en-
tirely occupied, excepting a narrow passage left for the
entry and exit of the officers. Troops in full uniform lined
the passage from Trano-vola, where the king had died, and
where the corpse still remained, to Besakana, whither it
was now to be conveyed in state. The place was filled with
the tsirondahy, or king's body-guard ; the female singers
kneeling to the ground ; and a number of females holding
the fans usually carried to the grave with a corpse. The
youths in personal attendance on the king, and the principal
officers conducting the ceremonies, were also present.

About nine o'clock, the relatives of the king, the young
princesses, and the wives of the judges, left the palace.
They had been to take their last farewell of the remains
of the departed monarch ; and retired, according to the
custom of the country, carried on the backs of their ser-
vants, weeping bitterly the whole way, and unquestionably
many of them with the utmost sincerity of feeling. The

HISTORY OF MADAGASCAR. 251

great drum was then struck, and continued to beat in the
manner usual at European military funerals.

By eleven o'clock the body was brought out, covered with
a splendid scarlet pall, richly ornamented with gold lace.
This was carried towards the throne by sixty officers of
rank. The corners of the pall were held by Mr. Brady,
major-general : Corroller, prince and general ; Louis Gros_,
king's architect; and the Rev. D. Jones, missionary. All
the Europeans were present, and joined in the procession.
The sight of the coffin, at the moment it was brought out of
the palace, awakened afresh the lamentations of the people,
and renewed their loud and frantic groans and wailing, as
if they had a second time lost their sovereign.

The whole of the passage along which the corpse was
carried, was carpeted with blue cloth ; a fine bull was also
killed near the throne, just before the arrival of the body;
and over the expiring animal, weltering in its blood, the
corpse was carried.* The queen, surrounded by a strong
guard, stood at the door of Maso Andro, while the body
was carried to the throne, and appeared much affected.
Raketaka, the infant daughter of Radama, sat, dressed in
the European manner, with her nurse, at another door.

The coffin, covered with the scarlet pall, was placed on a
bier in the house, which was strongly perfumed with fragrant
gums, and surrounded by a guard kept on duty through the
night.

* The origin of the custom of killing the bull on the occasion, is, like
that of many others practised by the Malagasy, involved in impenetrable
obscurity. It does not appear to be a sacrificial service, as there is no
prayer nor invocation offered, nor any priest to officiate ; it is merely
shedding blood. But the natives have an idea of something emblematical
in it. The lion being unknown in the country, a bull is with them the
recognized emblem of courage and strength, and hence becomes with the
people an emblem of the monarch. One of the most noble is selected
for the occasion, and over it, while just expiring, the corpse is lifted.

252

HISTORY OF MADAGASCAR.

On the following day, the 12th, the ceremonies were re-
newed. The Missionaries and foreigners were admitted to
the palace-yard, to unite with the natives in paying their last
tribute of respect to the memory of the deceased ; and they
joined the bearers in conveying the body to the tomb. The
ground was covered with blue cloth for about two hundred
feet of the distance ; and the whole passage on each side
was lined with soldiers under arms. Seventy- two of the
finest bulls belonging to the late monarch were killed at
the time, and the corpse was carried over them as already
described. The singing females, prostrate on the ground,
occupied almost every foot of the side of the passage along
which the body was borne, nor would they move, though
nearly trampled to death by the bearers and attendants.

The yard in which Trano-vola stands was thronged with
mourners, excepting a square in the centre, which was kept
by the military. Within this square a magnificent cata-
falque had been prepared, surrounded by a balustrade
covered with white cloth, and with pillars at each corner
covered with scarlet cloth and gold embroidery. To the
pillars were attached purple cords, on which were sus-
pended the lamps and lustres used by Radama. The plat-
form supporting the body was splendidly hung with rich
scarlet cloth and gold and silver lace ; the whole presenting
a gorgeous and imposing spectacle.

The members of the royal family placed themselves
within the balustrade; and a large number of females
dressed in white, wearing long black sashes, and having
fans in their hands, surrounded the canopy.

A large silver coffin was prepared by the native silver-
smiths, in the manufacture of which about fourteen thousand
dollars were expended. It was about eight feet in length, four
and a half in width, and the same in height. The dollars had

HISTORY OF MADAGASCAR.

253

been melted, and beaten into plates, which were fastened with
silver rivets. Its workmanship was rough, and its appear-
ance clumsy ; but the feeling which dictated so liberal an
expenditure of wealth, as a tribute of respect to a prince
who deserved it so well, was gratifying and highly honour-
able. An inscription was made on a silver plate, and
fastened to the coffin, of which the following is a trans-
lation : —

Tananarivo — 1 August, 1828.

RADAMA MAN J AKA,*
Unequalled among the Princes.
Sovereign
Of the Island.

The natives had been occupied for several days in pre-
paring a large tomb, or mausoleum, consisting of red earth
and roughly-cut blocks of stone. The building is about
thirty feet square and sixteen feet high. A small apart-
ment has been subsequently built over it in European
style, which is surrounded by a veranda. The interior of
the upper room is elegantly ornamented ; and a table, two
chairs, a bottle of wine, a bottle of water, and two tumblers,
are placed in \tie room, conformably with the ideas enter-
tained by most of the natives, that the ghost of the departed
monarch might occasionally visit the resting-place of his
ashes, meet with the spirit of his father, and partake of
what he was known to be fond of in his lifetime.

About six o'clock in the evening of the 12th, the corpse
was removed to its last resting-place in the silver coffin
which had been previously placed on a framework of wood
in the tomb. A prodigious quantity of the most valuable
personal property belonging to the late king, was buried

* Rudama, King.

254

HISTORY OF MADAGASCAR.

with the body. Of these, one of the Missionaries has fur-
nished a catalogue, amounting to upwards of one thousand
articles, including, among others, the following : —

49 Hats and caps.
155 Coats and jackets.
96 Waistcoats.
171 Pairs of pantaloons.

Some of the above articles
were richly ornamented with
gold lace.

53 Pairs of gloves.

47 Neckcloths or cravats.

54 Pairs of stockings.

37 Shirts.

38 Pairs of boots and shoes.
9 Pairs of gold epaulettes.

1 gold vase, present from George

in 1822.

2 Gold musical boxes.

18 Gold rings for the fingers.

3 Watches.

2 Gold watch-chains.

1 Silver tureen and ladle.

2 Silver dishes.

1 Gold spoon.

2 Silver plates.

1 Silver salad-dish.
1 Silver curry-dish.
1 Pair of silver candlesticks.
4 Fine writing-desks.
1 Glass chandelier.
24 Looking-glasses.
1 Pair of crystal decanters.
4 Crystal dishes.

1 Gold-headed spear.

2 Superior gold sword-sashes.

2 Pairs of pistols, richly orna-
mented with gold.
10 Swords and sabres.
1 Fowling-piece with all its ap-
paratus.

24 Muskets, ornamented with gold
and silver.
1 Air-gun.
24 Native spears.

IV.

Six of the king's favourite horses were killed — a cask
of wine was buried opposite to his tomb — and a brass
cannon was burst and buried.*

10,300 Spanish dollars were buried with the king, and
13,952 oxen distributed among the mourners assembled in
the capital.

The distribution of the oxen, and the burial of the
articles of apparel, might be designed to testify respect

* The cannon was loaded so heavily as to burst, on the same principle
as that on which they killed the favourite horses of the king, either from
an opinion, that having once belonged to the king, they could not with pro-
priety be used by any other person ; or that the spirit, in visiting the place
where the body was laid, might be satisfied on perceiving that the survivors
had not appropriated to themselves the treasures of their predecessor.

HISTORY OF MADAGASCAR.

255

for the memory of the departed sovereign; but it seems
scarcely possible that the immense sums of money were
with the same view consigned to the grave. The govern-
ment probably took advantage of the popular sentiments
of the nation in favour of the inviolate sacredness of the
tomb, thus to deposit so large a portion of its treasure in a
place, in which it would be safe amidst any civil commotion
that might ensue, and to which, in any emergency, it might
have the readiest access. The violation of the royal tomb
was one of the highest crimes that could be committed,
as was shewn in the fate of an unhappy man who was
convicted of it in Radama's reign.

Whether Radama's father had all his specie marked or
not, is not known, but the dollars buried in the tomb with
him had each a peculiar mark. On one occasion, during
the early part of Radama's reign, a dollar was brought to
the mother of Radama, then living in the palace. On look-
ing at the dollar, she remarked, " I have seen this before !"
and then declared it to be one that had been buried with
the corpse of her royal husband: investigation proved this
to be the fact — that the tomb had been entered, and some of
the dollars stolen; and the man who was detected, was
put to death by a slow process of the most cruel torture
that the native ingenuity could devise.

Besides tombs, there are also cenotaphs : these generally
consist of a low wall, built on three sides of a square. This
is intended for the ghosts of those who die in battle, and
whose bodies have not been found. Their ghosts, it is
supposed, are allured to repose in sacred spots, thus reared
for them by the hands of friends, and thereby find that rest
which otherwise they would have sought in vain, while
wandering with the owls and animals of ill omen in the

256

HISTORY OF MADAGASCAR.

forests, or paying unwelcome visits to their former dwellings,
and disturbing their survivors.

All possible means are employed by the friends of those
who die in battle, or during a campaign, to ascertain the
fact, and then to have the bones of the deceased carefully
brought home for interment. Hence, on setting off to war,
it is customary for friends to give a mutual pledge, that,
should one of them die, the survivor will endeavour to
obtain, and convey the bones of the deceased to his
relations. In such cases, they carefully scrape off every
particle of flesh from the bones, bring the latter with great
labour and fatigue from the most distant parts of the
country, and deliver them with great care to the friends of
the deceased, by whom they are received with all the
expressions of mourning that attend those who die in the
midst of their families ; the bones are afterwards buried with
the usual funeral solemnities.

The Malagasy have also a custom of erecting stone
pillars, of considerable height, as memorials, though with-
out any kind of mark or inscription on them. These are
called fahatsiarovana, "causing to remember." A name
is also given them derived from their position, mitsan-
gambato, " an elevated stone." No particular intention is
proposed by these, beyond that of perpetuating the memory
of the fact, that such an one (known to his family) erected
such a stone to commemorate himself.

During the latter years of the Mission in the island,
several of the native Christians were removed by death,
and were interred with the rites of christian burial ; the
Missionaries attending, and engaging in services resembling
those performed on similar occasions in England.

HISTORY OF MADAGASCAR.

257

CHAP. X,

Native expressions of thankfulness — Different forms of salutation — Customs
observed on the return of the sovereign to the capital — Prevalence of
common swearing among the natives — Their use of abusive language —
Amusements of the Malagasy — Smoking — Feasting — Hunting wild cattle
— Description of the mode of taking wild cattle, by Drury — Hunting the
wild boar — Fishing — Mode of catching the crocodile — Games at kicking
— Throwing at the target — The katra or drafts — Musical instruments —
The lokanga and valiha, drums, fifes — Singing — Character of the songs —
Specimens of native poetry — Song for the dead — Dress of the Malagasy
—Materials of which it is composed — Manner of wearing it — The salaka
— The kitamby — The lamba or mantle — Different kinds of lamba manu-
factured by the natives — Coverings for the head — Native sandals —
Articles of foreign manufacture used as clothing in Madagascar — Fond-
ness of the natives for ornaments — Silver chains — Silver rings, beads,
shells — Ornaments of ivory — Artificial flowers — Perfumes, native and
foreign — Ornamenting the body with scars— Mode of dressing the
hair — The European mode of wearing the hair, introduced by Radama
— Tragical occurrence among the native females in consequence of the
innovation.

The prevailing character of a people is often more distinctly
seen in their sports and pastimes than in their occupations :
the latter they generally follow from necessity, the former
always from choice ; the latter is often in opposition to all
their inclinations, the former is always in accordance with
the spontaneous bent of their tastes and desires. There is
also in general a striking resemblance between the habits
and the amusements of nations: the amusements of the
Malagasy, we are about to notice ; and to them a few
remarks on the mode of acknowledging favours, exchanging
salutations, with other social customs, as the latter are often
peculiar and characteristic, will form an appropriate intro-
duction.

258

HISTORY OF MADAGASCAR.

Whether the noble and generous feeling of gratitude has
much place amongst the Malagasy has been questioned.
Though often characterized by extreme apathy, they are
certainly susceptible of tenderness of feeling, and their
customs furnish various modes of testifying their sense of any
acts of kindness shewn them, and their language contains
many forms of speech expressive of thankfulness. The fol-
lowing are among those in most general use : " May you
live to grow old — may you live long — may you live sacred*
— may you see, or obtain, justice from the sovereign — may
you be loved by the sovereign — may you be loved by the peo-
ple— may you be raised to the highest rank — and, not least in
their estimation, may you be blessed with a large family ! "

With all their expressions of thankfulness, considerable
action is used: sometimes the two hands are extended open,
as if to present ; or the party stoops down to the ground,
and clasps the legs, or touches the knee and the feet, of the
person they are thanking.

The Malagasy have many different forms of salutation,
of which they make liberal use in exchanging the ordinary
civilities of good neighbourhood, and the common trans-
actions of life, and which form an important part of the
etiquette regarded by them as essential to good behaviour.
Hence in their general intercourse there is much that is
stiff, formal, and precise, at least much that appears so
to a foreigner; while amongst themselves the whole is
merely an intimation of politeness and good breeding,
whereby they maintain a higher degree of courtesy and
mutual respect than might be anticipated in a state of
society not more refined than that of Madagascar.

When the natives meet each other, instead of observations
upon the state of the weather, which they would consider

* Secure from the power of charms or sorcery.

HISTORY OF MADAGASCAR.

259

wholly superfluous, they generally propose some kind of
inquiry which a stranger to their habits would regard as
impertinent. Their forms of salutation vary with the
different occasions on which they are called forth.

On meeting upon the road, one man would say to another,

Sara, sara tsy ambaka," which is an assurance that no fraud
is intended. Females sometimes use the same expressions ;
but there are forms peculiar to the sex, which it is deemed
more correct for them to adhere to. A variety of questions
then follow, such as, Whence are you from ? Whither are
you going? all which are generally answered in the most
vague and indefinite manner, as, From the north ; or, Going
yonder, to the east.

On returning after a long absence, it is customary to
say, "Tongava soamantsara :" " Have you arrived safely
and well ?' " Tahin andriamanitra, azo ny saotra nareo
* Blessed of God, your blessing (or benediction) is obtained."
The questions as to the object of the journey then become
more minute, and the answers more vague, as if intended
to baffle rather than allay the curiosity of the inquirer.

In that part of the island where Drury was a captive, he
states that the usual form of salutation from wives to their
husbands, and from slaves or vassals to their chiefs, was to
crawl upon the ground and lick their feet, on their return
home from battle or from a journey.

In ordinary intercourse, on first entering a house, a person
is usually asked if he has arrived; to which, of course, he
answers in the affirmative. He is then asked to come in
with the charge to the inmates: " Behold, spread a mat
for the stranger F Having entered, the usual salutations
pass; and then the stranger asks, How are the family? We
are even here, the family, even all well. To which is answered,
Veloma,— « live !"

s 2

260

HISTORY OF MADAGASCAR.

The customs observed by Radama, on returning to bis
capital after war, or on any other important occasion, which
had called him from home, may not be deemed unworthy
of notice.

While still at a considerable distance from his capital, he
usually sent a messenger or letter to announce his arrival :
45 And I, saith LahidamaManjaka, tell you, the twelve females,
(that is, the twelve wives of the sovereign), and the judges,
and all the heads of the people, that I am coming home; on
Friday, (should that day have been selected), I depart from
this place, and on three returns of Friday I shall arrive at
Tananarivo — so I inform you. Tell all the people to dress
well, for I am coming."

On receiving the message, the twelve wives and judges
would send a crier to the markets, saying, "I, saith
Lahidama Manjaka, tell the Ambaniandro, (subjects of
the Hova government) that I am coming to town on such a
day. The brown cloth is to appear — (meaning, that they
are not to dress beyond their ability; which injunction is
received as implying that they are to dress as well as they
can.) Come up to Tananarivo, that we may salute him —
let it be seen who will attend on Friday at his own place
in Andohalo ; say the judges and the twelve wives."

When the king had advanced till within about twenty
miles of the capital, cannon were fired, to announce the
circumstance, and orders sent to Tananarivo, with directions
as to the salutes, the marshalling of the troops, sending
palanquins, and other preparations for a public welcome.
Prior to the king's entrance into his capital, a vast concourse
of people, assembled from the districts, were seated on the
ground with much order, awaiting the appearance of their
sovereign. The judges occupied their own station on the
occasion, giving orders that those who were to cheer should

HISTORY OF MADAGASCAR.

261

cheer, and those who were to clap their hands should clap,
while all were humming or singing the national " Hoo-oo-
oo." The females sang some detached expressions in
praise of the monarch, such as, Ny Andrianay Ehe — O our
king. Tsara Andriana — is a good king. Ny Zanahary nay
Ehe — O our God. Tsara Andriana — is a good king.

While the vast concourse of people were thus occupied
shouting, clapping, hooing, and singing till the earth and
air seemed to reverberate with their demonstrations of joy,
the king advanced amidst the shouts and singing of his
own immediate attendants, the roar of cannon, and the
music of his band. Whether he arrived on his horse, or in
a chair or palanquin, he must alight on the holy stone in
Andohalo, and from thence proceed to the temporary stage
erected for the day, where on taking his seat the national
air was played. The people then saluted the king ; twenty,
thirty, or forty thousand voices uniting in one shout.

The salute consists of a few words, merely to assure
the monarch that no deceit is intended, and to congra-
tulate him upon having obtained the kingdom.

Radama then rose and replied. "Well ! well ! O beloved,
even well." After which he recounted his pedigree, repeated
his inalienable right to the throne, assigning reasons for
remaining absent so long, and recounting his achievements
and the progress of the war.

The customary hasina, or tribute, was then presented,
after which, amidst shouting, singing, and music, he with-
drew from the stage, and retired to his palace ; on entering
which, his troops saluted him, presenting arms and saying,
— may you live to become old, sire — may you not suffer
affliction. Veloma (replied the king,) ry malala — live long,
O beloved. Corresponding ceremonies usually attend the
public or state movements of the sovereign of Madagascar.

202

HISTORY OF MADAGASCAR.

Common swearing is almost universal, yet swearing of
a much less profane character than that too frequently
heard in more civilized countries. In familiar conversation,
and especially in making sales in the markets, an oath,
meant by way of confirmation, is uttered with almost every
sentence.

The people swear neither by God nor by their idols, but
chiefly by their mother or by the sovereign. During the
time of the late king, the general custom was for the males
to swear by the king's mother, and the females by the king.
Radama, however, disapproved of this, and sent a sharp
kabary, or official message, to the markets to forbid it,
desiring that the name of the king and his mother should
not be used on every trifling occasion, but only appealed
to on affairs of importance, and in a solemn and delibe-
rate manner. The people were still allowed to swear by
parents, sisters, and brothers.

In abusive language the Malagasy are not deficient, and,
lest it should fall into disuse, a common practice exists, by
way of amusement, for persons to form themselves into two
parties in order to abuse each other in the most virulent
language their imaginations can invent ; and those who excel
in the most abusive vituperation, obtain the plaudits of the
spectators.

Of the amusements of the Malagasy, as they consist
chiefly in bodily exercises, a brief notice will suffice.

Many an hour is spent by them, when not occupied with
business, perched upon their heels on the walls around
their houses, or on any convenient spot for observing the
monotonous little that is to be seen. To take a walk for
the mere gratification of the exercise, or, in other words, to
walk about when a person might sit still, would be regarded
by them as an approximation to insanity. The Malagasy

HISTORY OF MADAGASCAR.

263

think it much wiser not to weary, or even to exert them-
selves for nothing. Yet some of their amusements consist
of the most violent athletic exercise, which would seem
incompatible with their apparent love of repose. The
truth is, that, like most other human beings, they are acted
upon by immediate excitement, so that when an object with
which they are pleased is presented to their notice, their
energies are roused, and they pursue it with great avidity ;
but no sooner does the excitement subside, than they
return to their quiet, inanimate existence, scarcely distin-
guished from the repose of the mere animal.

Highly consistent with this state of inanity is their love of
smoking — an amusement to which those who are deficient
in mental resources, and whose object it is to surrender
themselves as passive recipients of a sort of animal dream-
ing, yet most unproductive of enjoyment, are particularly
addicted. In one part of the island a practice of smoking
rongona, or native hemp, prevails, which Drury describes as
a plant that grows about five feet high, and bears a small
long leaf with a pod, which contains about a dozen seeds
like hemp-seed. These leaves and seeds are mixed
together, and laid in the sun for three or four days succes-
sively until they are very dry, and, thus prepared, are fit to
be smoked. The pipes used for this purpose are made of
reeds, or rather small canes. Sometimes a long shell is
used. The quality of the plant is such as to produce
intoxication, while the eyes of the smoker look red and
fiery, and his whole appearance fierce and savage. It is
easy to distinguish those who smoke the rongona, for, while
the effect lasts, they are more vigorous and resolute, often
acting like madmen. The effect of the plant thus used is
so strong, as in the first instance to produce a state border-
ing on delirium, which is followed by a total prostration of

264

HISTORY OF MADAGASCAR.

strength, inflammation of the eyes, and other unfavourable
symptoms.

Those who are much addicted to it are incapable of any
exertion, except during the time they are intoxicated. My
curiosity (says Drury) led me to try the experiment upon
myself; but it made my head so giddy, that I was intoxicated
for the space of three days, and so sick as never to be
induced to meddle with it any more."

When the Malagasy receive friends at their houses, their
amusements consist in visiting, accompanied by their guests,
the neighbouring chiefs; and when sitting in their own
house, they recount the deeds of their ancestors, which are
handed down from father to son, and form the principal
topic of their conversation. They also consult on the best
means of annoying their enemies, and arrange plans for
future expeditions; during the day, they entertain each
other in a sumptuous manner, and were accustomed
formerly on these occasions to drink copiously of an
intoxicating beverage, while songs, dancing, and merriment
were kept up during the night.

The chiefs in some parts of the island never go abroad
without a fowling-piece, and a stick tipped with iron at one
end, the other being ornamented with a tuft of cow's hair.
They seldom take any part in ordinary manual labour,
excepting that, after the country has been scoured by a
hostile army, and the rice-grounds have been devastated,
or have been destroyed by extensive inundations, the master
will add his own exertions to those of his slaves, in order
to prepare the ground for sowing.

The favourite amusements of the men are hunting wild
cattle, and occasionally, though very rarely, fishing. The
following account of their method of killing the wild cattle
is given by Drury. He describes the wild cattle as being

HISTORY OF MADAGASCAR.

265

in all respects like the cattle he had been accustomed to
see in England, except that their horns are somewhat
shorter, and their bellowings deeper. They are without
the hunch peculiar to the buffalo or tame cattle of
Madagascar, and, when wounded or annoyed, are extremely
ferocious and terrible in their attacks upon their enemies.
The darkest nights are always made choice of for this kind
of hunting. " The people permitted me," says Drury, " at my
request, but first ordered me to wash myself as they did, in
order that we might be entirely free from the smell of
smoke, as well as of all other effluvia. I could have taken
two lances, according to custom, but they obliged me to
leave one behind, lest two together might rattle in my
hand.

The cattle feed only in the night, and, if all these precau-
tions were not taken, could never be surprised, for they are
always on their guard, snorting with their noses, and listen-
ing as if for the approach of an enemy ; we could hear them
roar and bellow a great way off, by which we knew where
they were, and were always obliged to go round till they
were nearly to windward of us, otherwise they would have
scented us. As soon as we had got the wind and cattle
right ahead, and were within hearing, we walked with all
the circumspection imaginable, cropping the tops of the
grass with our hands as close as possible, to mimic, as well
as we could, the noise made by a cow in grazing. The
moment they heard us, they were all silent, not one of
them bellowed or grazed, but seemed to listen with the
utmost attention, which when we perceived, we all stood
still likewise, without a whisper, while three or four, best
acquainted with the art, continued cropping the grass.
When the cattle had listened till, as we imagined, they
took us for some of their own species, they returned to

266

HISTORY OF MADAGASCAR.

their grazing, and we walked with caution still nearer,
mimicking them as we moved softly along.

" At length we got amongst them, so that one of our men
was able to approach so near to a cow as to strike a
lance into her body. When thus wounded, the animal will
give a spring from the ground, and perhaps make a noise
as if hurt by the horn of another ; but this is so common
amongst them, that the herd is no way disturbed by it.
Our people therefore struck three or four in this manner,
with an intention to come the next morning, and track
them by their blood, for it is very dangerous to come near
them in the night. As soon as they find themselves sorely
wounded, they run from their companions, and will attack
the first man they see. They are generally found the next
morning actually dead, or fallen down in some wood or
shelter of bushes, as if they had been endeavouring to
conceal themselves.

" A day or two after this, we had a diversion of another
kind. Our dogs had got the scent of some wild hogs that
were in a thicket, and were very busy running round it, but
could find no entrance for a considerable time. At length,
however, they found the path made by the swine, and
attempted to enter the wood by it, but the passage was
defended by a large boar, who fought the dogs with great
fury, and wounded one of them in a dangerous manner.
Now, what with the dogs on the one hand, and the swine on
the other, there was such a yelping, grunting, and howling,
that the woods rang with their noise, so that one would
have imagined all the hogs in the island had met there by
consent, in order to revenge their quarrel upon us.

" We laid down our burdens, and some of us went up to
them armed with guns and lances. The boar was shot by
one of our party whose dog had been wounded, whereupon

HISTORY OF MADAGASCAR.

2G7

another in an instant defended the entrance, and fought
so resolutely, that neither the dogs nor we ourselves could
come near the animals that were within the wood, until we
had made a passage behind them with our hatchets and
lances, and then fired upon some of the most resolute who
had then turned upon us. The rest, perceiving themselves
attacked from behind, fought their way through the dogs,
and ran away, with the dogs after them. Words cannot
describe the noise there was, especially after some of them
were wounded.

M We found seven dead, besides several others so maimed
that they could not escape. We picked out only one or
two of the fattest, their flesh being very seldom eaten here;
and the eating of this kind of food being deemed contempt-
ible, I declined taking the share which might have fallen
to my lot."

The hunting of wild cattle, as well as bull-fighting, bull-
baiting, and cock-fighting, appears to have been a favourite
amusement in later times, and in other parts of the island
than those described by Drury.

In 18*24, when Mr. Hastie was in the Sakalava couutry,
on the borders of Iboina, with the king and his army, he
writes in his journal, under date of October 11th of that
yea; : —

" The store of rice being very low, and the wild cattle
numerous, Radama was induced to halt for a day, that the
soldiers might kill and drysalt a stock of beef. Two batal-
lions were ordered out for this purpose, and went forth in
four divisions.

" Agreeably to the custom of the country, on the first
herd being seen, the party halted, laid down their arms,
with the muzzles of the guns and the points of the spears
turned to the rear, and an aged chieftain implored for

268

HISTORY OF MADAGASCAR.

success on their enterprise in nearly the following terms : —
' O thou great Rangora ! master of these superb plains
and herds, be it known to thee, that the mighty king
Radama, attended by a formidable army, is thy visitor;
and it will only be consistent with thine own dignity, and
his exalted rank as governor of the earth, a king unequalled
by any other king, that thou shouldst present him with a
part of thy superabundant stock, for the use of his attend-
ants. Be it known to thee, O Rangora ! that the wants of
the mighty king are bounded, but his liberality is without
bounds ; he is slow in accepting, but lavish in bestowing
favours. He comes not in hostile array, but, as thy visitor,
in amity. O you Kotofotsy and Taihana! guardians of
your great master's innumerable flocks, let it be your care
to do him honour in the selection of the presents that he
may order for the use of his royal visitor, so that we, his
attendants, may partake of such fare as will induce us to
make favourable representations of your attentions to our
mighty king, and thereby entitle you to his beneficent con-
sideration. We again repeat, we are visitors in amity, and
only claim your hospitable entertainment during our sojourn
with you.'

" Before the troops returned, three hundred and forty-six
head of cattle were killed, besides the number wounded and
followed by the spearmen ; two days afterwards, four hun-
dred and thirty-one more were killed by the soldiers."

In the month of February, 1825, the late king Radama,
accompanied by the British agent, made an excursion to
Manerina, upwards of 100 miles west of the capital, having
about 3000 soldiers with him, for the purpose of carrying
on the sport on a large scale. Immense numbers of cattle
were killed, not less, it is said, than five hundred the first
day. The troops, stationed at suitable distances, sur-

HISTORY OF MADAGASCAR.

2G9

rounded a large plain, and then either shot the animals, or
received them on the point of the spear.

The tamer pursuit of fishing is occasionally followed
in many parts of the island ; rarely, however, by angling ;
sometimes line and hook is used, but the rod seldom, if
ever ; they take several kinds of fish by means of nets,
others by snares of cords ; frequently they take eels of
a very large size, often grasping them with their hands.
Fishing is much more frequently resorted to as a means
of obtaining a supply of food, than for amusement ; in the
former case it is chiefly followed by the women.

The superstitious opinions of the natives in reference
to the crocodile, have been already adverted to. In some
parts of the island these seem to have been less general or
powerful than in others.

Drury describes a mode of killing alligators, which con-
stituted a favourite amusement of a young prince or chief-
tain with whom he resided. The weapon used for this pur-
pose was a harpoon, with a head fixed upon it, and a rope
fastened both to the steel and the staff. " Being thus fur-
nished," he observes, " they paddle along the water towards
the alligator, which they generally espy at a distance, as
they are accustomed to keep their noses above water, and
appear like a floating mass of earth or matted weeds. When
they come within ten or a dozen yards of the animal, he
sinks to the bottom, and crawls a good way before he stops ;
but his course is discovered by bubbles that rise, and where
these remain they strike, for the alligator will lie flat on its
body at the bottom of the stream, with its sides pressed out,
when it hears a noise, so that they are often pierced through
with the harpoon ; though, should the harpoon strike upon
their backs or their heads, it will make no more impres-
sion than it would upon a rock." Drury further states, that

270

HISTORY OF MADAGASCAR.

they are sometimes caught also, by the Vazimbas, with a net
of ropes, of large meshes, or with snares made with spring
sticks, to draw up a noose in a rope, which are placed
at the mouth of a rivulet, or small canal. By these means,
as many as twenty or thirty alligators are often killed in
one day.

A favourite, but cruel and cowardly amusement of the
Malagasy, and one in which it might be thought there would
be as little excitement as there is risk, consists of throwing
stones from a given distance at the head of a fowl, on pay-
ment of a trifling sum to its owner. The poor animal is
buried in the earth, with the exception of its head, which is
left above-ground as a mark; and he who can strike it,
obtains the prize, perhaps for the value of a farthing, while
the chances being in favour of the owner, he generally
obtains a good price for his fowl.

A game frequently carried on, when not prevented by
any public mourning, is called Mamely dia manga, " kick-
ing backwards," or, what may be literally translated,
" striking blue with the sole of the foot." The game
consists in the parties kicking one another in the same
manner as horses, asses, or other animals. This accom-
plishment is sedulously cultivated from youth to manhood,
and many become desperately expert in the amusement,
if amusement it may be called, where the accidents of
sprained or broken ankles and legs are not unfrequent
accompaniments. Hundreds at a time occasionally join in
this noisy sport, forming themselves into parties, as at an
English cricket-match, and rushing upon each other with
amazing force, each one seeking to maintain his advanced
position, and repel his antagonist by kicking backwards.

Throwing bamboos, tipped with iron, at a target, is a
method of accustoming youth to use the spear, and serves

HISTORY OF MADAGASCAR.

271

as an amusement to many. Trials of strength are also
made by lifting stones, and sometimes by throwing them as
in the game of quoits.

Seizing calves, and sometimes bullocks, however fierce,
by the hump on the back, and clinging to them until
they fall, in defiance of all their efforts to escape, is a
popular amusement, requiring skill, strength, courage, and
agility.

A play with pebbles, by throwing them up and receiving
them on the back of the hand, throwing them again from
the back, and receiving them on the palm, and repeating
this a given number of times without dropping beyond
a certain number, is also a popular amusement with young
people of both sexes. Tops and kites have also been
introduced. Fire-works are scarcely known. Boxing and
fencing have been heard of, but do not seem to accord
with the genius of the Malagasy ; and whoever should
attempt to render them popular, would probably be treated
by the police as disorderly and quarrelsome persons, and
compelled to find some other occupation for their leisure
hours.

Another game, of a more sober character, and more
general than any of these, is called katra, and somewhat
resembles drafts. A large stone or board is prepared,
with a given number of divisions, and small pebbles or
seeds, about the size of nuts, are used as the drafts or
dice. The notice of this game is attended with some
degree of pleasure, from having advanced one step nearer
to what is intellectual in the amusements of the Malagasy.
Thirty-two small square holes are cut in an oblong board,
used in playing at this game. Boards of this kind is kept
in many of the houses; and in some places the game is
followed out of doors, and the square holes are cut in

27-2

HISTORY OF MADAGASCAR.

the surface of a rock, or smooth flat stone, near the native
dwelling. Small stones are used in playing, and the art of
the game consists in moving them from one hole to another,
as the pegs are moved in the children's game of fox and
geese, until one entire row is emptied. Dealers and
traders resorting to the ports on the coast, or the capital,
have, in recent years, made some of the natives acquainted
with the use of cards ; and with many of the people who
have been associated with foreigners of the class above
referred to, playing at cards has become a favourite pas-
time, though they do not appear to have staked large
amounts on the game. Card-playing may therefore be
included in the catalogue of the amusements of the
Malagasy.

In speaking of music, we advance still further; and
of music, both vocal and instrumental, the Malagasy are
extremely fond, though in neither have they yet made
much progress.

There are two native instruments of music, the valiha
and the lokanga, to which may be added the drum. The
valiha is a bamboo, having eight small slips cut from its
rind between two of its joints, and then by means of small
pieces of wood, used as bridges in a violin, elevated about
a quarter of an inch. The player holds the instrument
before him, and uses both hands in twitching the cords.
The music thus produced is soft and plaintive; the tunes
few, short, and extremely monotonous.

The lokanga is somewhat louder, and more generally
used by the slaves than the valiha. It is formed of a piece
of wood, notched at one end so as to form three or four
rests for the cord or string. One string is stretched upon it,
and attached to the head of a hollowed calabash or gourd.
The music, as might be supposed, is extremely feeble and

HISTORY OF MADAGASCAR.

273

dull. No. 1. marks the lokanga in the accompanying wood-
cut, No. 2. the valiha, and No. 3. the drum.

Drums made in a form somewhat resembling those of
Europe, are sometimes used. They are made of the hollow
trunk of a tree, and are covered with nntanned ox-hide,
the ends being drawn together by thongs of the same
material. They are beaten at one end with a stick.

A few inferior fifes are also used, as well as drums,
but neither are well made or musical. Many of the
latter are beaten upon the knee, or placed between the
knees, and beaten with the hands instead of drumsticks,
while the players are seated on the ground. They are
chiefly used as an accompaniment to the females' clapping
of hands and singing, and answer the purpose of assisting
to keep the time.

Few Malagasy voices can be considered good or musical.
Those of the men are generally powerful, but harsh, and
sometimes strongly nasal ; they are, however, less in the
habit of singing than the women. In the public assemblies

I, T

274

HISTORY OF MADAGASCAR.

some of the speakers exhibit immense powers of voice,
and are able, though in the open air, to command the
attention of several thousands of people. In speaking they
use considerable action, which is frequently bold, energetic,
impassioned, and sometimes graceful, though at other times
it is excessively awkward.

The voices of the females, though better adapted for
singing than those of the men, are for the most part
deficient in sweetness and melody. There is indeed a
softness in some of them which pleases, and might be made
to charm, if well cultivated, and regulated according to
scientific rules. They are most effective in chorus.
Very few can gratify when heard singly ; and hence, per-
haps, the usual practice of singing in chorus. The
constant and regular clapping of the hands, as if beating
time to their notes, is to the ear of a foreigner, if not
exactly discord, a miserable substitute for the harp, the
flute, or the violin.

The sovereign has a large band of female singers, who
attend in the court-yard, and who accompany their monarch
whenever he takes an excursion, either for a short airing
or a distant journey.

The songs are principally composed of detached sentences.
They are highly figurative, but not so highly sentimental.
In general, they may rather be characterized as tame and
insipid; the Malagasy language being itself too deficient
in descriptive epithets, in adjectives and adverbs of quality,
to admit of any fulness, richness, or luxuriance in their
songs. Their festive songs are neither rhyme nor blank
verse; yet they are not destitute of a sort of cadence,
partly arising from the number of syllables admitted, and
partly from the emphasis laid on corresponding stanzas.
The characteristic feature of most Malagasy singing in

HISTORY OF MADAGASCAR.

275

chorus, is alternate recitation. The subject of the song
being usually its first line, which serves also for the name
of the tune, is proposed in chorus ; to which a leader replies ;
and so on alternately to the end of the piece, which contains
from twenty to fifty or even sixty lines.

The following is a specimen of a song in praise of the
sovereign : —

Chorus. Rabodo does not tread upon the ground, (i.e., does not

walk, but is carried.)
Leader. The Rabodo of Andrian- Ampoin-Inierina.
Chorus. Rahodo does not trample on the country. Long live the
great life ! (i. e., the sovereign. )

In a number of the country villages, where singing is much
more practised than in the capital, the natives have attained
greater eminence : and it is thought that in some of the
provinces of the south, the compositions, the singing, and
the music are superior to those of the Hovas. Singing
may be heard in most houses in the evening, when music
is most congenial to the feelings ; and when it is moonlight,
the villagers often assemble, and pass a few hours in the
amusements of singing, dancing, and clapping their hands,
accompanied by whatever musical instruments the village
can produce.

Occasionally a travelling bard may be met with, and
there is reason to believe that some of the compositions
sung by them contain more genuine poetry than any other
specimens in the country. The following verses were sung
by a bard from Ambohimanarina, who visited the capital,
where they were taken down as he recited them, at the
request of some members of the Mission. To one of these
Mr. B. added an English translation, confining himself to
the same number of lines and syllables as in the original,

t 2

27G

HISTORY OF MADAGASCAR.

so as to afford the English reader a better idea of Malagasy
composition and poetry.

A Song concerning the Dead.

Vain man ! observ'st thou not the dead ?

The morning warmth from them has fled,

Their mid-day joy and toil are o'er,

Though near, they meet fond friends no more.
A gate of entrance to the tomb we see,
But a departure thence there ne'er will be.

The living waves his signal high,

But where's his dearest friend's reply ?

Ah ! where are those thus doom'd to die ?

♦

Vain man ! observ'st thou not the dead ?
Sweet words forsake their dreary bed,
There's none the mould'ring silk* around his fellow foldu,
Or north or south again their visits gay beholds,
Then shall re-echoing vales no longer cheer,
For them the hills no lofty signals rear.
Their shrouded heads unmoving lie,
Unknown the friends that o'er them sigh,
Ah ! where are those thus doomed to die ?

Vain man ! observ'st thou not the dead?

No more their homeward path they tread.

The freeman lost may ransom'd be,

By silver's magic power set free ;

But who these lost from death can buy ?

Ah, where are those thus doomed to die ?
Let me prefer true goodness to attain,
Or fool or wise I'm deem'd by transient fame.
New rice, my friends, your cheerful blessing, give,
So from Razafilahy^ you thanks receive.

The degree of civilisation attained by a people, and
many of the distinguishing features of their popular cha-
racter, are seen in the dress and ornaments in use among
them. Those of the Malagasy we now proceed to de-
scribe.

The corpses are wrapt in silk.

t The bard's name.

HISTORY OF MADAGASCAR.

277

Considering the distinct sources whence it is evident
Madagascar has been peopled, and the comparatively
modern amalgamation of any large portion of the different
and independent tribes under one government, there is a
great similarity in the dress of all its inhabitants. This
uniformity appears the more remarkable, when we remem-
ber the variety of articles suitable for different kinds of
apparel, which the island produces. Cotton, hemp, and
silk, of the most valuable kinds, abound in the country, and
the arts of spinning and weaving have long been known to
the people. To the garments prepared from these
materials, may be added importations of cotton, silk, and
woollen cloth by merchants and traders from the East
Indies, as well as from Europe and America. In some of
the provinces, stuffs manufactured from the stem of the
banana are fine and light, equal in beauty to those of silk,
and woven in the same manner. The cotton cloths made
for the governor of Anosy are the most esteemed, being
the finest and strongest that are to be found in the island.

The ordinary dress of the Malagasy is not only uniform,
but simple. It consists generally of two, and at most of
three garments, which are chiefly of hemp or cotton, varied
among the slaves and poorer classes, by a cloth inferior to
either of these, and manufactured from the bark of the
rofia, the banana, and some other trees ; and among the
rich, by the more soft and costly silk, or foreign cassimere
and broad-cloths* Children of either sex, under five or six
years of age, in Madagascar are not pressed by the weight,
or fettered in the free use of their limbs by the confinement
of clothes of any kind; nor do the articles of clothing worn
by those of more advanced years subject them to much
inconvenience by their number, or the tightness with whicli
they are fitted to the person.

278

HISTORY OF MADAGASCAR.

The two principal articles of dress worn by the Hova
race are, first, the salaka, or piece of cloth about a yard in
width, and two yards long. The salaka is worn in a man-
ner similar to the maro of the South Sea islanders, being
fastened round the loins, passing under the body, and
having the extremities in front reaching to the knees. This
article of dress is generally of white cotton, hemp, or rofia
cloth, ornamented at the ends with borders of various
colours. The salaka worn by the nobles, the chiefs, and
the more wealthy of the natives, is of the purest silk.

The kitamby of the females resembles the pareu of the
South Sea islanders. It is of the same materials as the
salaka, but considerably broader, and is worn round the
person immediately below the breast, and reaches nearly to
the feet. The females of the Betsimisaraka, Batanimeua,
and other tribes, especially those bordering upon the
eastern coast, wear, in addition to the kitamby, a sort of
upper garment, which covers the breast and descends
sometimes to the ankles, clothing the arms, in some to
the elbow, and in others to the wrist. This part of their
dress, which is called the akanzo, is of white hempen or
cotton cloth, made in the island, or of variously coloured
foreign cloth, either of the dark indigo-coloured Indian
cottons, called Pondicherry cloth, or white or coloured
linen or cotton cloth of European manufacture. The
akanzo is worn by the females only ; and for those of rank
or wealth, it is, like the salaka, often made of silk from
India or Europe.

The most important and characteristic part of the native
dress of the people, is the lamba or mantle, which varies in
dimensions and quality with the rank and circumstances
of the wearer. The lamba is worn by both sexes and all
classes, both adults and children ; for adults it is usually

HISTORY OF MADAGASCAR.

279

three or four yards in length, and two or three in breadth.
The royal lamba, which is held in highest estimation, is
of fine scarlet English broad-cloth, bordered and richly
ornamented with gold lace, imparting to the figure arrayed
in its rich and ample folds, a splendid and imposing appear-
ance. The scarlet lamba is worn by the king on sacred
festivals, and other state occasions; scarlet is the royal
colour in Madagascar, and though the nobles and others
are allowed to wear robes in which scarlet is intermingled
with other colours, the use of the lamba or other dress of
entire scarlet is the prerogative of the sovereign alone, to
whom belongs also the distinction of using a scarlet um-
brella.

The other kinds of lamba are the fcasena, which is of native
or foreign silk, woven by the inhabitants in their rustic
looms. It is rich, durable, and beautiful in appearance,
presenting a series of broad stripes throughout its entire
length, amongst which bright scarlet, crimson, purple,
orange, and white are the most frequent colours ; it is also
ornamented with a rich and variegated border, and deep and
curious fringe. Next in value to the kasena is the totorano,
which is of white cotton, with a deep border of dark blue
at each end. The third kind of lamba is the roronga,
which is made of the native hempen or white European
cloth. A fourth kind is of native cotton or hempen cloth,
dyed of a rich chesnut brown or black colour, with a fringe
or border of the same colour. Among the Betsileo, this
kind of lamba is frequently used with a sort of beads made
of a composition of silver or lead. The remaining lamba
is the jabo, which is the coarse native cloth or matting
manufactured from the dyed bark of the useful rofia, which
supplies a large portion of the poorer classes in the country
with their ordinary and almost only clothing. A dress of

230

HISTORY OF MADAGASCAR.

this material may be obtained for about one shilling English
money, and multitudes in Madagascar possess, from the
cradle to the grave, no superior attire. Many of the slaves
wear scarcely any other clothing than a girdle of rofia, or
other coarse cloth, but all above the very poorest wear the
salaka and the lamba, the latter of which is the almost
universal robe of the living, and the shroud of the dead. In
some parts of the country, the only clothing of the slaves
and poorer classes is a loose piece of cloth, from twelve to
eighteen inches wide, of a dark-brown colour, and made of
the bark of the hibiscus, simply beaten out after the manner
of making cloth practised by the South Sea islanders.

The lamba is worn by all classes over the shoulders,
whence its folds hang loosely, reaching nearly to the ankles,
the ends being drawn together in front of the wearer. On
the persons of the men, it is adjusted so as to hang princi-
pally over the left shoulder ; as worn by the women, over
the right. The Betsimisaraka use the lamba and salaka as
well as the Hovas, and, from the circumstance of their dwell-
ing near the coast, are able to procure with greater facility
European and other foreign cloths.

Among the inhabitants of the interior, many of the men,
when employed in driving cattle, wear a frock with sleeves,
made of the common rofia cloth, and in shape resembling
the frocks used by husbandmen and carters in England.

The women also wear a sort of spencer, or short dress,
made of fine foreign silk, Pondicherry cloth, or printed
cotton : under this they secure the lamba, wearing it round
them as a skirt, instead of its being thrown over the
shoulders as a mantle or shawl.

The serandrana, or sash, is used by the nobles and
others for binding the salaka, or other under garments, to
the person of the wearer. This article is often of costly

HISTORY OF MADAGASCAR.

281

materials, and rich in its appearance, being frequently of
red silk, with beautifully variegated borders. Girdles of
different patterns, and beautifully fine texture, are fre-
quently made in the island.

Coverings for the head do not seem to have been gene-
rally used by the natives, and are now worn chiefly by the
nobles and richer portions of the community at the capital,
and at the ports on the coasts. On the coast, the chiefs
and some of the people wear a sort of hat or cap of neatly
woven rushes, or coarse grass. Caps of more costly and
durable materials, of foreign manufacture, are used at the
capital. Radama frequently wore a cap of velvet, with a
band of broad gold lace ; and many of the officers, following
his example, wore a similar covering for the head. Hats
of foreign manufacture are also in frequent use, the naval
or military cocked hats being generally worn by the officers
in the army or at the palace. A common red worsted cap
is also very frequently used by secondary chiefs and others,
in different parts of the country. Since the residence of
the Mission families at the capital, ladies' caps, similar to
those worn by the wives of the Missionaries, or by females
in Europe, have been adopted, to a limited extent, by the
chief women of the capital.

Excepting a rude kind of sandal made of bullock's hide,
and used when travelling over a rugged path, no covering
or protection for the feet was used by the Malagasy; but
shoes and stockings have been introduced, and are used by
the officers and others who have the means of obtaining
them.

Furs of different kinds might be procured in the island,
but they have never formed any part of the dress of the
natives; nor do they seem to have used for purposes of
clothing, at any period, the skins of animals either tanned

282

HISTORY OF MADAGASCAR.

or with hair on. Skins of animals of different kinds appear
to have been universally worn by the several races inhabit-
ing the African continent, from the earliest period of our
acquaintance with them ; and the circumstance of their
never having been used by the natives of Madagascar,
although animals whose skins would have been in every
respect suitable to the purpose have always been numerous
in the island, seems unfavourable to the opinion that the
present inhabitants were at first a colony from any part of
the adjacent continent, while their using so generally cloth
made from the bark of the rofia or other trees, either
woven or beaten, furnishes increasing evidence of their
having emigrated from the Asiatic archipelago, and having
one common origin with the races now peopling the eastern
island of the Pacific.

Cottons, linens, and woollen cloths, of foreign manufac-
ture, Indian or European, have long been used as articles
of clothing by the natives ; and in recent years, dresses made
in the European form have greatly increased among them.

The government employ constantly several hundred
tailors and sempstresses in making up wearing apparel.
These are all to a certain extent slaves ; and their bondage
and their occupation are alike perpetual, terminating only
with their lives. The judges and chiefs wear the same
kind of dress as others in similar circumstances. Rank or
office is but rarely indicated by dress, with the exception of
the chief ministers of the sovereign, or the officers of the
palace; these wear a sort of household uniform, consist-
ing of a frock or surtout-coat of dark blue colour, tastefully
decorated with black or dark-coloured braid, a cap of the
same kind of cloth, with a band of gold lace, or a cocked
hat, and in general trousers of blue ornamented with broad
gold lace.

HISTORY OF MADAGASCAR.

283

Prior to the year 18*21, a distinction prevailed, by which
no person was allowed to ride in the native chair or palan-
quin, except the royal family, the judges, and first officers
of state, called Maroserana ; but this, with other customs
of a similar kind, was afterwards abolished by Radama at
the recommendation of the late Mr. Hastie. The only
distinctive marks of office amongst the Malagasy, in addition
to the dress and arms of the body-guard, are such as have
been introduced by Europeans, and already noticed. One
exception, however, must be made in favour of venerable
men, or elders, who often wear a large heavy silver ring
hanging from each ear, its weight being such as to pull
down the ear like a cord, until the ring touches the
shoulders.

Few of the natives are entirely clothed in European
apparel : those who have adopted it are usually seen
arrayed partly in foreign, and partly in native costume.
The present queen frequently appears in public with the
large folds of the white native lamba spread over a rich
silk, or other European dress.

The Malagasy are fond of ornaments : those generally
worn are of gold, silver, ivory, bones, beads, or shells. All
classes are accustomed to wear necklaces, earrings, and rings
on the fingers, with ornaments in the hair and on the fore-
head. Bracelets, chains, and charms of various descrip-
tions, are used ; but flowers, which have been so frequently
adopted by other nations, as congenial to a simple and
unsophisticated taste for the beautiful in nature, they never
wear by way of ornament The Hovas adorn themselves
with large silver rings on the fore-arm, round the wrists ;
and some of the tribes wear, on public occasions, large
silver chains round their waists.

Besides the rings and chains of silver, large rings of

284

HISTORY OF MADAGASCAR.

cotton or hemp, covered with small beads, arranged after
various patterns, are worn by both sexes on the arms above
the elbows, or as bracelets on the wrists. Anklets of the
same kind are also common. Ornaments of gold are few,
and next to them those of silver are held in the highest
estimation. In addition to the chains and rings already
noticed, an article of silver, from one to four inches in
length, hollow, and slightly curved at the point, bearing
some resemblance to the crocodile's tooth, (the name by
which it is called,) is in very general use. Sometimes
these silver teeth are fastened, with the points upwards, to
a fillet worn round the head ; at other times they are fixed
to the armlets, bracelets, or anklets of the people, or they
are fastened to a necklace or bolt hung over the shoulder,
and passing across the breast. The extent to which they
are worn may be inferred from the number on the person
of the chieftain whose portrait forms the frontispiece to the
present volume.

Necklaces of beads are frequently used ; and suspended
from these, on a silver chain, many wear a breastplate of
silver. Sometimes the necklace is formed of dollars fastened
together at their edges; at other times, a bandage of the
same kind, fastened in a similar wray,is worn round the head.
The Sakalavas seem to be exceedingly fond of ornaments of
silver or ivory, and are occasionally seen with a ring in one
of the nostrils, as well as a circular ornament of ivory or
silver, which they wear on the forehead.

Although natural flowers are not worn, the natives at the
capital have lately imbibed a taste for artificial flowers ;
and at public dances, or other occasions of festivity, a
number of females are generally seen decorated with gar-
lands of artificial flowers on their heads, or flowers and
feathers in their hair.

HISTORY OF MADAGASCAR.

285

Foreign perfumes are highly prized, and tseroka, (castor
oil,) with various other unguents, one of which is made
from the feet of cattle, are used for anointing their bodies.
For their hair, the tseroka (mixed with a powdered leaf
of the Ravintsara, in scent like the nutmeg) is in high
repute amongst the more privileged classes; whilst the
poor seem to find equal satisfaction in the liberal use of the
unperfumed fat of the ox or the cow.

Instances are very rare, in which any kind of colouring
is used for the face, or other part of the person : a custom,
however, prevails among the Hovas, of preparing from the
akondro (banana plant) a kind of white plaster, with which
they smear their faces. After this has remained for two
or three days upon the skin, it is washed off, when the face
is considered fairer and more beautiful than before. On
some occasions also, when decorating themselves for a public
dance, or similar festivity, young persons are accustomed
to prepare a sort of pink paint, with which they mark
their faces, by imprinting on different parts small pink
spots, which are supposed greatly to heighten their
charms.

Tatooing can scarcely be said to exist among the Mala-
gasy ; yet many of the -people are in the habit of making
deep incisions, of various forms, in different parts of the
body, chiefly on the arms and chest, regarding the cica-
trices formed by the healing of the wound as highly orna-
mental. Little uniformity prevails as to the form or num-
ber of these incisions. The natives of the Mozambique
shore, on the adjacent continent, are recognized by the
numerous and deep scars upon their faces ; and hence
probably the practice has been derived by the natives of
Madagascar, though the latter do not cut the face, nor
infuse any colouring matter into the incisions.

286

HISTORY OF MADAGASCAR.

The only other colouring matter the natives ever apply
to themselves is in the form of a dentrifice. The juice of
a shrub, called the laingio, is rubbed on the teeth, which
produces a deep black stain; and this, after remaining two
or three days, is carefully washed off with water mixed
with powdered burnt rice. By this means they preserve
the beautiful colour of their teeth, in the whiteness
strength, and preservation of which they certainly excel.
To one of their customs, worthy of general imitation,
that of rincing the mouth with cold water after every meal,
this excellence may in part be attributed : and so strong
are their opinions in its favour, that in observing Euro-
peans neglect this practice, they have been known to com-
pare them to the inferior animals, who eat, as they think,
in a most uncleanly manner.

The plaiting of the hair was, until very lately, considered
by the natives as essential to personal beauty, and, from
the time it occupied, might have been accounted one of
their favourite amusements. The Betsimisaraka and
Betanimena dress their hair in five tufts, two on each side,
and one behind. The Hovas dress it in numerous plaits
one over another, on each side ; the women placing gold
and silver pins in one or two particular plaits in front,
above the forehead. The Sakalavas have also a peculiar
way of dressing their hair, and ornamenting it with croco-
dile's teeth, bones, gold, silver, or shells. They may be
generally distinguished by having a small shell attached to
the tuft of hair which hangs down to the middle of the
forehead. In this mode of wearing the hair, the Betsileo,
Bezanozano, and Antsianaka assimilate partly with the
Hovas, and partly with the Betsimisaraka, sometimes
wearing it plaited, and at other times formed into tufts.
Those of rank and property amongst the Malagasy fre-

HISTORY OF MADAGASCAR.

287

quently have their hair braided, and arranged in such a
manner as to present a beautiful and elegant appearance,
being formed into a large number of knots and ringlets,
which are tastefully arranged in rows, circles, or sections,
and richly supplied with valuable unguents. There are
ten or twelve different modes of plaiting, and of arranging
the plaits, having their distinctive names. A difference
is sometimes, though very rarely, observed between mar-
ried and unmarried women, in this part of their personal
ornament ; the former wearing their hair twisted up, and
secured on the top of the head, while the latter allow it to
flow negligently over the shoulders.

The European method of cutting and wearing the hair
was introduced only in the year 1822, when the king, being
disposed to adopt the fashion, tried it first upon one of his
brothers. The people were astonished at so novel an
occurrence; but when, in the course of two or three days,
the king himself was seen to have parted with his plaits
and curls, the mere dressing of which had sometimes
occupied three days, they were silenced, and, whatever
they thought, none durst express their dissatisfaction. The
example of the monarch made the measure popular, and
scissors and combs were in universal demand. The army
and scholars were allowed to follow the European custom,
but the rest were still compelled to retain the native mode,
and these badges of distinction still remain. About a fort-
night after this change in the mode of wearing the hair
had been introduced, a circumstance of a tragical nature
occurred in connexion with it, which, as it illustrates the
character of the people, may not be unworthy of a place in
their history.

Against the above public innovations, a spirit of daring
opposition was evinced by a number of females in a neigh-

288 HISTORY OF MADAGASCAR.

bouring district, and a large meeting was held, to which
the discontented repaired. Information of these proceed-
ings soon reached the capital. About two thousand sol-
diers were immediately summoned ; they renewed their
oaths of allegiance, promising that whoever should be found
guilty of creating a disturbance, even if their own parents
should be implicated, they required but the king's order or
permission to put them to death : after these assurances of
fidelity, the soldiers were ordered to guard the capital.
On the following day, four or five thousand females assem-
bled at Ambatoroka, a village to the east of Tananarivo,
and sent a kabary, or message, to the king, complaining of
his having adopted foreign customs, and having allowed
his people to be taught by Europeans. In reply, Radama
sent to ask them what were their grievances ; if they were
too heavily taxed, or if they were displeased at having their
sons employed in the army ; whether he were their king or
not, and whether they had chosen some other king in his
stead ? They replied to these questions in the negative ;
but said, they were the nurses of the king, and complained
because he had adopted the customs of the foreigners ;
had allowed them to teach him and his people; had
changed the customs of his ancestors ; and, finally, he
had cut off his hair, and drank spirituous liquors. Radama
sent back a message to ask, if, being king, he had not
a right to do as he pleased with his hair without consulting
women ; reminding them, it was the inalienable right of
the twelve monarch s to do as they pleased, and added,
that he would presently give them a proof of this, by
taking care that their own hair should never grow again.
Having ascertained who were the ringleaders, five of them
were selected, and orders were given to the soldiers of their
districts and families so to cut off their hair that it should

HISTORY OF MADAGASCAR.

289

never grow again. The order was mournfully obeyed, and
they perished under the bayonets of the soldiers in sight of
the multitudes of females, and a vast concourse of people from
the town. His majesty immediately sent for the Europeans,
told them that a number of persons who were fools, and wished
to remain such, had created a disturbance. I have ordered
five of them, said Radama, to be put to death ; but don't
you be alarmed. I am here to protect you. — The bodies
of the five women who were put to death, remained upon
the spot until they were devoured by dogs and birds.
The company of rebellious females were detained where
they had assembled during the space of three days, guarded
by troops, and without food or shelter. They entreated to
be released, and said, that unless the king should exercise
mercy, they must all perish. He then sent word that they
might return to their respective homes, and attend to their
domestic duties, but must leave the business of government
to himself, and not interfere again in the affairs of the
kingdom. It is not supposed that Radama regarded one of
the charges they brought against him, viz. the drinking of
spirituous liquors, as belonging to the business of govern-
ment; though they were not the most proper reprovers.
This he passed by in silence, and punished them for inter-
fering with the public regulations which he had thought
tit to introduce.

290

HISTORY OF MADAGASCAR.

CHAP. XL

Occupations of the Malagasy — Division of labour — Professional employ-
ments— The judges — Officers of the palace — Head-men or elders — Extent
to which offices are hereditary — General division of the people into
freemen, peasantry, and soldiers — Native farming — Culture of rice — Pre-
paration of the soil — Sowing and transplanting the grain — Modes of irri-
gation— General appearance of the country immediately before harvest —
Quantity of the grain — Causes of the occasional failure in the crop —
Reaping — Manner of thrashing— Storing the grain — Description of the
granaries or rice-houses in different parts of the country — Culture of the
manioc — Period required for its growth — Extent to which it is used —
Failure of attempts to introduce European modes of agriculture — Rearing
of silkworms — Native methods of manufacturing iron — Situation and
character of the mines — Manner of getting and preparing the ore —
Description of the Malagasy furnace, bellows, &c. — Nature of the fuel —
Process of smelting — Native blacksmiths — Native forge, tools, and articles
of native manufacture — Introduction of the art of shoeing horses — Arrival
of Mr. Chick from England — Astonishment of the natives at beholding
the apparatus of an English forge, and the strength of Mr. Chick — Tri lls
of strength between the natives and Europeans — Improvements in the art
of working iron, manufacturing cutlery, and wire-drawing — Native gold
and silver smiths.

During the early periods of a nation's existence, while the
elements of society retain their simple and primitive forms,
the members of the community have their occupations in
common. If they dwell upon the shores of the sea, every
man is his own shipwright, his own mariner and fisherman ;
and if they inhabit an inland country, every man builds
his own house, cultivates his own land, manufactures his
own weapons, pursues his own game, and provides for
the wants of his own family. This is the state of society
in South Africa, among the aborigines of America, and in

HISTORY OF MADAGASCAR.

291

the Islands of the South Seas,. The division of labour,
the classification of pursuits, and their distribution among
different individuals, belong to a state of society that is
more or less organized, while the extent to which these
arrangements are carried, and the proficiency attained in
science or art, mark with distinctness and fidelity the
progress of improvement and civilization ; and rude and
simple as native society was in Madagascar till within the
last twenty-five or thirty years, the process of social organi-
zation had commenced, the advantages of a division of
labour, and a distribution of talent and effort, were to some
extent understood and practised ; and though, in general,
agricultural and pastoral occupations were followed by all
classes, numbers devoted their attention, industry, and
skill to one particular employment, in which they excelled,
and from which they derived the means of subsistence
for themselves and their families. In these early stages
of a nation's progress towards civilization, the Malagasy
had made considerable attainments, when Europeans, little
more than twenty years ago, first visited the interior of
their country ; and since that period, they have, in conse-
quence of the introduction of many of the useful arts of
Europe, the employment of letters, the encouragement of
education, and the extension of commerce, advanced with
accelerated speed.

At the time now referred to, or even prior to the visit
of any European to their capital, to their engagement in
any treaty with our government, or to the formation of their
army upon the European system, this great principle of
successful organization of society was in operation among
them, and they had not only mechanics and artificers,
but those who were devoted to what might be regarded
as the higher or professional occupations. These are in

U 2

292

HISTORY OF MADAGASCAR.

some instances clearly distinguished from the occupations
which belong to the labour of the hands; but in many
cases the men of professional skill not being fully employed
in their official capacities, follow the ordinary pursuits of
agriculture, mechanics, and trade.

The highest profession is that of judge, of whom there
are always a number on duty in the capital, and one or
two in the lesser towns. The office is not hereditary.
The judges are appointed by the sovereign, and hold their
appointments only during his pleasure.

The next in office is the Farantsa, whose duty it is to
preserve the general tranquillity and order, and promote
the well-being of the people.* In every village, head-men
are appointed by the sovereign. The jurisdiction of these
men extends over a certain portion of the district, from
amongst the inhabitants of which he enrols from time to
time such as have reached the age of manhood, and are
suitable for the army, or other public service. Under the
head-men, inferior officers are placed ; the system of obe-
dience to elders or superiors being very extensively enforced.
It is established under the idea that seniority necessarily
confers authority, and as their own proverbial saying affirms,
" Evil is the land without elders.''

Next to this brief list of civil professions is the army,
where the principle of subordination has lately been strictly
enforced ; and to both these professions may be added those
of the mpanozon doha, administerers of the ordeal of tangina ;
mpisikidy, diviners; mpanala vintana, discoverers of fate,
or astrologers ; and the mpanao ody, makers of charms or
medicines.

* The specific duties of the Farantsa will be noticed in the following
chapter.

HISTORY OF MADAGASCAR.

293

These professions are not hereditary ; but as the son
generally assists the father while living, acting constantly
under his direction, on his death he is generally chosen by
the king to the office held by his father, and enters fully
upon its duties. Sometimes the son is excused from taking
upon himself the office or profession of his father, even
though appointed by the king, if disinclination or other
causes induce him to decline it; and occasionally, an
adopted son, brought up to the profession of his patron,
succeeds him in the discharge of its duties.

It will be seen that amongst these professions, poetry
and music are not specified ; not because they do not exist
in a rude state, but because they are not practised pro-
fessionally. There is, however, a singular class of men who
ought not to be omitted here, as professors of prophecy —
the mpaminany, or prophets, who, after looking earnestly
in a man's face, pretend to foretell some propitious event
as sure to occur to him, for which agreeable intelligence
they expect an immediate reward.

Having noticed what may be regarded as the professions
of Madagascar, we proceed to consider the more general
occupations of the people, who, in Ankova, have, in regard
to their occupations, been lately classed in two divisions,
viz., soldiers and bourgeois, or townsmen. The former are
generally called sorodany, a corrupt native pronunciation
of soldat, but they have lately been designated miara-mila,
a native compound word, signifying " united in seeking."
The bourgeois are called borizany, a corrupt pronunciation
of the word bourgeois, which is employed at the capital, and
in many of the provinces, to designate all who do not belong
to the army, and are not employed by the government.
Both names are of modern introduction, having been used
only since the formation of the army in 18*2'2.

294

HISTORY OF MADAGASCAR.

An account of the army will be given in a subsequent
chapter, it would therefore be superfluous here to -describe
the occupations of the soldiers in war and on garrison
duty.

The individuals following the professions, or sustaining
the offices already noticed, comprise but a very small por-
tion of the entire community ; the great body of the people
depend on their own exertions, or the labours of their slaves,
for the means of support. Their occupations may, to a
certain extent, be said to divide them into three distinct
classes, viz. the agriculturalists and herdsmen or shepherds ;
those that are engaged in handicrafts or manufactures ; and
the traders, and hucksters or pedlars. The former are the
most numerous and important; indeed there are few, if any
of the people who are not more or less engaged in the cul-
tivation of the soil, or the feeding of cattle. The most
important and general department of native agriculture is
the growth of rice ; in which is probably occupied a larger
portion of time than in all the other employments combined,
especially about the commencement and the close of the
rainy season ; the former being the season for planting
the grain, the latter for gathering in the harvest. From
the extent to which the nation is dependent on the supply
of this valuable grain, some account of the manner in which
it is cultivated, more in detail than might otherwise be
necessary, will not be considered as inappropriate.

Many of the Malagasy in the neighbourhood of the
capital, and more particularly in the Betsileo provinces, are
very attentive to their rice-grounds, preserving them with
great care, and keeping them remarkably clean. After
the crop is removed, the ground is generally left untouched
for three or four months, after which it is dug up with the
native spade in large clods, twelve or eighteen inches square,

HISTORY OF MADAGASCAR.

295

which are piled up like bricks or peat, that they may be
thoroughly dried, aud all the weeds destroyed; the period
immediately following the rice harvest, being the driest
season of the year. After remaining some time in this
state, the clods are spread over the field, and mixed with a
suitable proportion of manure. Water is then let into the
field, and soon softens the clods, which when moist are
easily broken, and reduced to a very fine earth. The field
is then made as level as possible by a thin sheet of water
being conducted over its surface. It is now deemed ready
for the seed, which in sowing is literally cast upon the
water.

The bursting of the buds of the ambiaty (a common
shrub,) which generally takes place in the month of
September, is regarded as the commencement of spring,
the time when seed-rice is prepared for sowing. This is
done by steeping the grain in water for one or two days,
and afterwards keeping it in a warm place until it begins
to sprout. In this state it is sown, after which the water
is drained off, and instead of harrowing the ground, some
very fine manure, generally of wood or grass, is scattered
over the newly-sown rice. The field is now allowed to
remain a day or two without water, until the young shoot,
causing the earth to crack, indicates the approach of the
blade to the surface. The whole is then again covered to
the depth of about two inches with water, which is shortly
afterwards drained off. After this, the tender blade soon
appears above ground.

The seed is sown very thickly, and the growth of the rice
in this stage requires great attention till about five or six
inches above the ground, when it is considered fit to be
transplanted to other fields ; this, however, is seldom done
until after the rains have begun to fall in October and

296

HISTORY OF MADAGASCAR.

November. The fields to be planted require to be care-
fully prepared, but this is often done in an inferior manner,
and without manure. In preparing the low grounds for
rice, the natives often employ cattle. Twenty or thirty
oxen are driven into a field, and two or three men employed
to drive them over the whole surface, to break and soften the
moistened sods. This is extremely laborious, both for cattle
and men, but it is found to be the most valuable and effectual
method of preparing the soil. When the fields are prepared
for the young rice, each single plant is put in the ground at
a distance of from six to nine inches apart, the ground
being then in a state resembling mud rather than earth.
This part of the labour is generally done by women, and it
is astonishing with what rapidity their work is performed.
The plants are held in the left hand, and with the right are
put into the ground at the rate of two or three in a second.
A bushel of rice when the ground is prepared in an inferior
manner, without drying the earth in the transplanting
ground, will on an average produce fifty bushels. If the
clods are well dried, it will produce seventy; and if the
ground is particularly well done, and manured, it is no
uncommon thing to take home one hundred bushels for the
bushel sown. The soil when properly dressed is exceed-
ingly fertile; and if the season be favourable, and the
crops escape the ravages of insects, and the destructive
effects of blight or mildew, the ground is everywhere
thickly covered with the prolific grain.

One of the most agreeable objects in the neighbourhood
of Tananarivo, and in many parts of the Betsileo country,
both as it gratifies the eye, and tends to fill the mind with
delight in contemplating the bounty of the Creator thus
providing support for a numerous people, is the rice-fields
in the months of January and February. An immense

HISTORY OF MADAGASCAR. 2D7

plain, of many square miles in extent, unbroken except by
here and there a tree or cottage, divided into several thou-
sand fields, varying in size from half an acre to six or seven
acres, all covered with luxuriant growing, or healthful
yellow and ripening grain, the large-bearded ears of which
shine and rustle as they wave beneath the passing breeze,
and bend from the weight of the grain sometimes half-
way to the ground, while the cluster of stalks produced by
a single seed is often so large, that the reaper cannot with
one grasp gather it into his hand.

Each field is divided from the rest by a small bank about
six or nine inches wide, the top of which being generally
raised six inches above the field, forms a smooth foot-path,
affording great convenience to the labourer employed in
the field. By the side of these paths, little rills are led
over the entire plain, so that every field may be watered
when necessary. These rills are supplied from canals,
which, in the neighbourhood of the capital, convey water to
the remote parts of the plain, extending from the Ikiopa, a
large and winding river, which flows around great part of
the capital, adorning the landscape, and clothing the valleys
with fruitfulness and verdure. The channel of the Ikiopa
is defended on both sides by strong banks of earth, so that
though several feet higher than the fields, they are seldom
injured by any irruption of its waters. At times, however,
such an accident occurs, and the occasion calls forth all
the inhabitants, who rush in a body to the place, carrying
with them whatever they can find in their way, to assist in
stemming the torrent, willingly sacrificing at such times
houses and garden walls, to confine the water within its
accustomed channel, and prevent the inroads of the inun-
dation, which would, in all probability, destroy the greater
part of the crop.

298

HISTORY OF MADAGASCAR.

The canals are cut around the bottom of the hills adjoin-
ing the fields of rice, the proprietors of which take the
quantity of water required along the course of the canal,
which, in some places, extends for several miles. Other
canals are led, when necessary, through the centre of the
plains, and from these also the adjoining planters draw
their water on both sides.

Every field is a perfect level, it being necessary at times
to cover it with water several inches deep. There are
some plains containing a square mile of rice-ground, the
level of which probably does not vary two feet throughout
its whole extent. In the more hilly parts of the country,
small streams are intercepted as near as possible to the
tops of the hills, on the sides of which the rice-grounds
are formed in long narrow terraces, which are supplied
with water from the stream already mentioned. These
terraces vary in size and number, being frequently not
more than three or four feet wide, and often rising one
above another on the sides of the hill, to the amount of
twenty or thirty in number. When covered with water
preparatory to sowing or planting, they present a remark-
ably singular appearance, resembling an immense aqueous
causeway, or flight of steps, from the level ground towards
the tops of the hills.

The cultivation of rice in the interior of the island is
not unfrequently attended with considerable disappoint-
ment. The failure may arise from various causes, such
as too much or too little water, from the depredations of
the locusts, or more frequently a small insect, which eats
into the stalk, and destroys it so completely as to leave
whole fields to present a withered or blighted appearance.
Sometimes also a shower of hail passing over a field of
rice nearly ready to be cut down, destroys it entirely; and

HISTORY OF MADAGASCAR.

strong winds also occasion great loss, by shaking the ripe
grain out of the ear.

Should no calamity of the kind occur, and the season
favour the gathering in of the ripened grain, the family
are all on the alert, and active in securing the plenteous
harvest, some working up to their middle almost in water.
In cutting the rice, the reapers always use a large knife
instead of a hook or sickle, and lay down the corn in
handfuls on the stubble ; women and children follow after,
and tie up the handfuls in small sheaves which are set
up to dry for two or three da)s before being carried away.

Besides the rice grown in the manner now described,
there is another kind grown on high ground, usually the
gently-sloping sides of the hills. In preparing the soil for
the latter, the wood is felled, and the least valuable parts
of it burnt on the ground. The rice-seeds are planted
among the ashes, and, watered by the heavy periodical
rains, generally yield as rich a harvest as that planted in
the low lands, and so frequently covered with water. The
latter kind is called fioraka, the former tavy. There is no
difference in the appearance of the grain, and the same
price is obtained for both kinds in the market.

The natives of Madagascar have never attempted to
accustom the oxen, which are so numerous in the country,
to any kind of work, except that of trampling the soil to
prepare it for planting ; they have neither wagon, cart,
sledge, nor beast of burden ; the produce of the fields is
therefore carried in large bundles on the heads of the
slaves from the field, to what may be called the Malagasy
threshing-floor. It has been already stated, that the growth
of rice requires that the ground should, during a part
of the year, be covered with water, and be generally kept
in a moist or soft state till the grain is ripe. At unequal

300

HISTORY OF MADAGASCAR.

distances from each other, in every large tract of country
laid out in rice-fields, a portion of ground of considerable
extent is left solid, on which one or two houses or sheds
are erected, and occasionally a tree or two planted. Here
an open space, generally near a fragment of rock or large
stone, is left, as a general threshing-floor, on which the rice
is beaten from the stalk or straw, before carried home to
the granary or store-house of its owner.

The mode of threshing, if such it may be called, is sin-
gular. No flail or stick is used, but the floor, of hard clay,
being cleaned, the rice is taken in large handfuls, and beaten
against a stone or on the floor, till the grain is separated
from the straw ; this is continued till the whole is finished,
when it is winnowed to separate the grain from the beards
and fragments of straw ; after which it is carried in baskets,
holding about a bushel each, on the heads of the slaves, to

HISTORV OF MADAGASCAR.

301

their master's house, frequently two or three miles from
the field. The loads are heavy, and this part of the labour
is often exceedingly severe. The straw is preserved for
fuel or fodder for the cattle.

The secure storing of the rice is an object of great
importance in Madagascar ; and different means are
employed by the several tribes, or races, for keeping it from
mildew or damp, and preventing its being stolen by the
indolent or destitute among themselves, or being destroyed
by the rats which abound in the villages.

The Hovas, and inhabitants of Betsileo, preserve it under-
ground, keeping it in circular excavations five or six feet in
diameter, and seven or eight feet deep. The form of these
rice-pits greatly resembles a bee-hive ; the sides are lined
with stiff clay, from the floor, also of hard clay, to the
summit, where a small aperture is left, which is usually
covered with a stone. Through this aperture the grain is
poured when brought from the field, and through the same
the quantity required for daily use is obtained. These sub-
terranean granaries are constructed with great care, and
rice is often kept in them for a long time, apparently with-
out being in the least degree injured. The rice granary is
usually near a country-house belonging to the owner, or in
the court-yard of that in which the family resides. The
cruelty of the rulers of this unhappy people has led them
to apply them to other and vastly different purposes, making
them a sort of black-holes, in each of which six or eight, or
a larger number of people, have, for some real or pretended
offence against the sovereign, been shut up, till they have
died by suffocation.

Some of the tribes construct their granaries above ground,
and make them resemble in shape those already described.
They are conical, or formed like a bee-hive ; and often

302

HISTORY OF MADAGASCAR.

rise fifteen or sixteen feet from the ground. The walls
are thick, and are of clay, carefully wrought, and imper-
vious. No opening is formed in the sides, and only one
small aperture is left at the top, which is closed with a
slab or stone. By means of a rustic ladder, (generally a
pole with notches cut on its upper side,) the grain is carried
up, and poured through the aperture. When the rice is
wanted, a slave-boy is usually let down through the hole, and
the requisite quantity drawn up in baskets.

The Antsianaka, the Betsimisaraka, and the Bezanozano,
preserve it in houses raised six or seven feet above the
ground by large wooden pillars, in one part of which there
is usually a projection, very smoothly polished, to prevent the
ascent of rats. The rice-houses often afford shade or shelter
to the people. A ladder, similar to that used to reach
the summit of the conical-shaped houses, is also fixed
against the door of the elevated granaries.

HISTORY OF MADAGASCAR.

303

This kind of granary, or storehouse, is generally erected
near the dwellings of the owners of the rice ; and in order
to the greater security of this, one end of the building is
frequently used as a lodging-place for a slave. Hence a
female may sometimes be seen ascending towards the door,
with a young child, secured only by the folds of the lamba,
hanging at her back, apparently experiencing no inconve-
nience from the rugged and narrow ladder or stair by which
alone she can gain admittance to her dormitory.

The growth of rice is the most important agricultural
occupation of the Malagasy; second to this, is the culture
of the manioc, called by the natives mangahazo, i. e. purple
wood, from the colour of the stem. The manioc is usually
cultivated in enclosed fields ; the fence consisting of a bank
of earth about three feet high, and planted with songo-
songo, euphorbia splendida, or a mud wall, the top of which
is thickly set with splinters of bone, in a manner resem-
bling that in which fragments of glass are fixed on walls in
England. When the ground has been well dug, pieces
of the stems of manioc, about a foot in length, are pro-
cured, either from the redundant branches of crops ready
for gathering, or from crops recently gathered. These
are simply thrust into the ground in a slanting position,
leaving about a third portion of each stem above the soil,
which is gently trodden down upon the plant with the foot.
The slips are fixed about twelve inches from each other.
When the plants begin to grow, which is generally in about
a fortnight, manure is scattered over the soil. After the
field has been planted nine or ten months, the weeds are
carefully removed, and a few months afterwards the manioc
is ready for use. From fifteen to eighteen months may be
required between the planting and the harvest, so as to
allow two rainy seasons for the crop ; the first about the

304

HISTORY OF MADAGASCAR.

time of planting, and the other about the time of ingather-
ing. The whole field is seldom gathered at once, but is
collected by the family as required for use or for sale. The
roots are usually from eight to twelve inches in length, and
three inches in diameter. They are prepared for use by
scraping off the outer rind, washing them, and boiling them
well. Occasionally, the roots are baked in hot embers.
Manioc-roots are also sold in the markets, cut into small
pieces, and dried in the sun, in which state they are more
easily preserved, and require less cooking, than when first
taken from the ground. The roots are sometimes eaten
without cooking, as raw turnips are eaten in our own coun-
try, by persons passing through the fields ; and a custom
similar to ours prevails in Madagascar, of permitting a per-
son to gather and eat in such circumstances, as if by force
of hunger ; but to gather and carry out of the field, would
be considered theft, and be punished accordingly. The
natives are extremely fond of manioc ; and though they
prefer rice, the former is extensively cultivated, especially
as it grows well on the sides of hills, and on ground higher
than is suitable for rice. Its appearance, when cooked,
resembles that of parsneps, to which vegetable it is not
altogether dissimilar in flavour.

In the Mauritius, the manioc is scraped, dried, and after-
wards made into cakes, in which form it is extensively used
on most of the sugar plantations.

To these, the chief departments of native agriculture, the
growth of wheat and oats were added by the late Mr. Hastie,
and by some of the Missionaries, who taught the natives
how to sow and use them. These, especially oats, grow
well in Imerina, where crops have been seen to equal those
of England. The plough and harrow were also introduced,
and oxen broken in, to cultivate the ground, to the great

HISTORY OF MADAGASCAR.

305

astonishment of the natives. But, like the people of many
other countries, they preferred their own slow methods of
preparing the ground, to the adoption of readier plans and
superior implements.

Besides the growth of other edibles, and the care of their
gardens, cotton is cultivated to a considerable extent in
Ankova, Antsianaka, and in Betsileo. The rearing of silk-
worms occupies a large portion of the attention and time of
many of the inhabitants of Imerina. The silk-worms of
Madagascar are of a different kind from those of India ; they
are larger, and very hairy. They are fed upon the leaves of
the pigeon-pea, cytisus cafcui, called ambarivatry. The
seed of this plant, which resembles the common pea, is
generally sown in a space of ground from three to four
acres in extent. When the plant is grown, and in full leaf,
the silk-worms are introduced, they feed upon the leaves,
and then spin out their silk in the open air.

The manner in which the natives prepare arrowroot,
which grows in the Sakalava country, for food, is to dig it
up, wash it, and rub it upon a rough stone, in a vessel
containing water. Here it remains for some time, when
the water is poured off, leaving the arrowroot at the
bottom. It is then taken out and dried upon a mat in the
sun, after which it is ready for use. It is generally boiled
in milk, which abounds in this province.

Next to the cultivation of the soil, the occupations at
present most important to the Malagasy, though perhaps
of comparatively modern origin, are those connected with
the working of iron. Their attainments in this useful depart-
ment of labour, though exceedingly imperfect, yet exhi-
bit in a favourable light the ingenuity and perseverance of
the people. It has been already stated, that iron abounds in
every part of the interior of Madagascar, especially in some

i. x

306 HISTORY OF MADAGASCAR.

of the central and northern provinces. Whether the natives
were acquainted with the properties of this valuable metal
prior to their intercourse with Europeans, is not known,
but they have long been accustomed to prepare and use it.

It is stated by the natives, that the working in iron was
first practised in Imerina about a century ago, viz. in the
reign of the grandfather of Radama. It has certainly been
used during a longer period in other parts of the island,
as the native foundries for smelting iron are noticed by
Rochon, and is also mentioned by the writers of still earlier
accounts. In the Betsileo country, and in some of the
other provinces, the iron ore is found in large quantities on
or near the surface of the ground, whence it is gathered up
in baskets, and smelted for use. In several districts, within
fifty miles of the capital, considerable quantities of ore are
procured in this manner. The iron used in the capital, or
obtained for the service of government, is procured chiefly
from the north and west parts of the country, between forty
and fifty miles from Tananarivo. Here are situated what
may be termed the iron mines of Ankova ; but though they
appear to have been worked for many years, little progress
has been made, even in examining them much below the
surface. Mr. Hastie, who visited one of these mines in
1817, states, that upwards of a hundred different openings
to the mine had been made, each in size being about three
feet square, but that none of them were twenty feet deep :
the mine, therefore, can scarcely be said to be opened,
Mr. Hastie was informed that about four miles farther west
a mine of richer ore had been discovered, and that from
this more recently-discovered mine, the natives, at the time
of his visit, easily obtained all the ore they required. Most
of the iron used in the central parts of the island, is found
in the mines of Antsianaka ; large quantities of ore are also

HISTORY OF MADAGASCAR.

307

obtained in the district of Ambatolehivy, about fifty miles
from the capital in a westerly direction, and near the lake
Itasy.

When visited by the Missionaries, the natives have been
found either gathering the ore from the surface of the
ground, digging for it in the plain, or at the foot of a moun-
tain, but seldom penetrating above five or six feet deep.
Their method of smelting it is exceedingly curious. Their
foundries, if such they may be termed, are always situated
near the bank of a river, or running stream of water ; sites of
this kind are selected on account of the convenience of the
water in washing and purifying as much as possible the ore
before it is placed in the furnace. The ore is washed, and
then broken into small pieces not larger than nuts ; it is
then repeatedly washed in the river, for the purpose of
separating, as much as possible, the earthy particles from
the iron, which, after repeated washings, is gathered up
in large coarsely-wrought baskets, and kept till submitted
to the action of fire. The furnace and its appendages are
exceedingly rude and simple in their construction ; and the
ore, at best, is but imperfectly smelted. In building the
furnace, a hole about six feet in diameter, and one or two
feet deep, is sometimes dug in the ground, at other times
the earth is only levelled. The walls of the furnace are of
rude stone-work, built up to the height of three or four feet,
without mortar, and thickly plastered on the outside with
clay. No aperture is left in any part of the wall for the
purpose of drawing off the metal. The blast for the furnace
is obtained by a singular and ingenious contrivance, very
much resembling those in use in some parts of south-
eastern Asia. Two rude cylinders, about five feet long, the
aperture of each from four to six inches in diameter, are
formed out of the trunks of trees of hard wood ; these are

x 2

308 HISTORY OF MADAGASCAR.

made air-tight at one end, and are planted in the earth,
about a foot apart, in an upright or slightly-inclined posi-
tion, within about eighteen inches or two feet of the fur-
nace; a hole is made in each cylinder, a few inches
above the ground, into which one end of a bamboo cane
is inserted, the other entering a hole made in the stone
or clay wall of the furnace ; a rude sort of piston is fitted
to each of the cylinders, and the apparatus for raising
the wind is complete.

No coal has yet been found in Madagascar, and charcoal
is the only fuel employed in smelting the ore, On this
account, the furnaces are generally built in those parts,
of what may be termed the iron districts, that are nearest
to the forests where the charcoal is made. In the pro-
vinces remote from the capital, charcoal is burnt, and iron
is worked by the chiefs and their people, or by native
labourers for their own advantage ; but in Imerina and
in Antsianaka all the iron obtained is for the service of
the government, hence five or six hundred men are con-
stantly employed by the order of government in burning
of charcoal for the oundries in the province, and the
smitheries at the capital. The only return these men
receive, in the shape of compensation for their labour, is
exemption from certain taxes levied on other members of
the community. The charcoal burners, as well as the
miners and founders, are, however, a sort of government
slaves ; they live in the forests, or near the places where the
ore is found, and they dare not leave their occupations on
pain of death. The charcoal, as well as the ore, is brought
in large baskets, in which it is kept near the furnaces.

In smelting the iron, they first kindle a fire in the bot-
tom of the furnace; over the fire they spread a quantity
of charcoal, and then throw in the ore, either mixed with

HISTORY OF MADAGASCAR

309

charcoal, or spread in alternate layers, till it reaches the
top of the walls. Over this, a sort of covering of clay, in
a conical shape, with an aperture in the centre, is occa-
sionally spread. In procuring the blast, the pistons are
sometimes worked by a man sitting on the inner edges of
the two cylinders, holding the shaft of one of the pistons
in each hand, and alternately raising and lowering them
by the action of his arms. Sometimes the man working
the cylinders stands on a low bank of earth raised behind
them.

There are, in general, two cylinders to each furnace;
but when one only is used, it is of much larger dimensions
than those already described, and the piston is worked
with both hands. The contents of the furnace are brought
to a white heat, and kept in this state for a long time;
after which, the fire is allowed to go out The covering
is taken off; and the iron, which is described as being
partially melted, and forming one solid, or a number of
smaller masses, at the bottom of the furnace, is removed,
beaten with a hammer, and then again submitted to the
fire, prior to its being conveyed to the capital for the use
of the native smiths.

Rude as the processes of mining and smelting are at
present in Madagascar, yet from the number of men
employed, the nature and variety of their occupation, the
value of the mineral which they are rendering available for
many of the purposes of civilized life, and the activity with
which the natives pursue their respective departments of
labour, few scenes in the country are in many respects
more interesting to a foreigner than those exhibited on a
visit to the mines in the province of Ankova,

In the working of iron, the natives seem to have made
greater advances than in smelting the ore ; the art, how-

310

HISTORY OF MADAGASCAR.

ever, may still be regarded as but in its infancy among
them. In some parts of the island the smiths reside in
different villages, and mingle promiscuously with the other
portions of the community ; but near the capital, where
many hundreds are the servants of government, they
sometimes congregate together, and form the majority
of the inhabitants of a village. When this is the case,
they sometimes erect one or more sheds, in convenient
spots adjacent to their dwellings, and pursue their work
together; but in general, the forge of the native smith
is fixed in his house, usually at the south end of the
building. The whole apparatus is exceedingly simple.
The fire, which is kindled on the floor, is surrounded by
three or four stones, through one of which a hole is per-
forated, to admit the end of the bamboos, fixed in the
cylinders, that answers the purpose of bellows. These are
smaller, but in other respects resemble those used in
smelting the ore. The pistons are worked by an assistant
or a slave. The anvil, which is about the size of a sledge-
hammer, is either fixed in the ground near the fire, or
fastened to a thick and heavy board. The water-trough
is placed near, and the smith, when at work, sits or squats
on a piece of board on the ground; his assistants some-
times sit, but more frequently stand, on the opposite side
of the anvil, ready to strike with larger hammers, according
to his directions.

Until the arrival of the artisans who accompanied the
Missionaries to the capital in 1822, the articles in iron
manufactured by the people were exceedingly few, and
the workmanship clumsy and unfinished ; they consisted
chiefly of spears and javelins, knives, hatchets, and spades,
chisels and hammers, a rude sort of plane-irons, and files,
pots, spoons, and lamps. Shortly before the arrival of the

HISTORY OF MADAGASCAR.

311

Missionaries, they had begun lo make nails ; but of the
methods of making hinges, screws, and nails, excepting
those of a simple round form, they were ignorant. In con-
nexion with this subject, Mr. Jones, one of the first Mis-
sionaries in the island, mentions an occurrence, which
places in a striking point of view the advantage which a
Missionary may derive from even a slight acquaintance
with some of the most common and useful arts of his
native land.

Speaking of their nails, Mr. Jones remarks, " They
made nails, but they were round, and not square. I was
the first, I think, that taught them to make a square nail.
Towards the end of 1820, a favourite horse, sent to Ra-
dama by Sir R. T. Farquhar, in the charge of Mr. Hastie,
in the previous year, lost one of his shoes, and there was
no person in the capital who knew how to shoe a horse.
Seeing the anxiety of the king, I said to him, If you will
trust me, I will nail on the old shoe. The king was
exceedingly pleased, and wished me to do it. I made a
model of a horse-shoe nail, and the native smiths made
some nails exactly like the model. The horse was brought
into one of the royal houses ; and the king, his officers,
smiths, Sec. assembled, to witness the novel transaction.
While I was driving the nails into the animal's hoof, the
king frequently cried out, Take care, take care, don't hurt
the horse — don't hurt the horse ! I continued driving the
nails, clinched them, rasped the foot, &c, and the horse was
led out unhurt, to the great astonishment and delight of all
present, who appeared, from this trifling circumstance, to
attach increased importance to our residence among them.
I should not have attempted it, had I not often nailed
on old shoes when I used to take my father's horses to
the blacksmith's shop in Wales. After this, the Malagasy

312

HISTORY OF MADAGASCAR.

smiths made these sort of nails, as well as horse-shoes,
and shod the king's horses, though they did it but clumsily
until the arrival of the smith sent out from England.

" Formerly they had no locks : but Europeans, since the
commencement of the Mission, have taught the natives
to make several kinds of locks. A very clever smith once
borrowed a patent padlock from me, which he opened, and
having examined it thoroughly, made one exactly like it."

Mr. Chick, an excellent artisan sent out by the London
Missionary Society in 1821, was the first European smith
who settled in the interior of Madagascar ; and to him
the natives of Ankova especially, are indebted for their
improvement in the art of working in iron. He reached
the capital in 1822, and fixed his residence at Amparibe,
where he erected his shop, and fitted it up in the
European style, as far as circumstances would admit.
Mr. Chick was himself a powerful man; and the tools,
the bellows, the anvil, and the large sledge-hammer which
he used, filled the natives with the greatest astonish-
ment. The report of his great strength soon reached the
palace; and shortly after he began his work, the king,
with a number of his officers, paid him a visit. Mr. Chick's
boys were at work at an anvil of a middling size. A spare
one, of considerable weight, was standing on the floor in
another part of the shop; and the king, after looking about
with admiration for some time, told his officers to lift the
anvil that was standing on the floor: each in his turn
put forth his utmost strength, but could not raise it from
the ground. "What!" said the king, "are you all con-
quered ? Let me try." His majesty then laid hold of it
with all his might, and tried to raise it from the ground,
but with no better success than his officers. Aoka izay,
(said the king,) avelao mba atao ny vazaha ankehitriny —

HISTORY OF MADAGASCAR.

313

"Enough; let the white man try now." Mr. Chick then
lifted the anvil to a considerable height from the ground,
to the great surprise of all present; and it is singular to
notice the first impression which this evidence of the
superior strength of the Englishman produced on the
minds of the king and his suite: they all concurred in
declaring that it would be dangerous to fight with such
men.

A number of youths were placed, by order of the sove-
reign, under the charge of Mr. Chick, as apprentices, and
were carefully instructed by him in the several branches
of his art; When the king commenced building the palace,
Mr. Chick furnished the iron-work for it ; while thus occu-
pied, he had about two hundred and fifty native smiths
employed under him, and from that time may be dated
the improvements made in smithing by the natives. Mr.
Chick's work at the palace entirely ceased when Radama
died. He was employed by the present government to
furnish the iron-work for the mills erected by Mr. Cameron
at Alakaly, and had under him about two hundred persons,
who had every opportunity of improving themselves, and
learning the more difficult branches of the business.

Many of the native smiths are now able to make hinges,
screws, and a variety of the most valuable articles of iron
used in civilized life. They have also attained considerable
proficiency in wire-drawing. In making brass or iron wire,
they beat the rods till they are nearly reduced to the size
required, when they are heated,, and drawn through holes
in a plate of iron or steel till brought to the proper size.
The wire is drawn through the holes by a rude sort of
winch, turned by one or two persons.

It is a subject of deep regret, that in recent years their
skill in the manufacture of cutlery and hardware has been

314 HISTORY OF MADAGASCAR.

employed in the fabrication of implements of war, more
dangerous and fatal than the assagai or spear which for-
merly constituted their chief weapons. Great numbers of
swords and bayonets have been made by the native smiths,
in obedience to the orders of the government ; and a short
time before the Missionaries and the artisans left the
island, the queen entered into arrangements with some
natives of France to establish a manufactory of muskets in
the vicinity of the capital.

The native goldsmiths and silversmiths exhibit con-
siderable ingenuity in the manufacture of rings, chains,
and various ornaments of the precious metals, which are
obtained from foreign traders. Silver dishes, mugs, and
other drinking vessels, and spoons, for the use of the
sovereign and others, are wrought by them in a manner
highly creditable to their skill and perseverance. Bowls,
dishes, and plates of tin and lead, in imitation of those
taken from Europe, are manufactured to a small extent
among them. The wire for their chains, both gold and
silver, which are exceedingly fine, is made by first melting
the metal, beating it into long thin rods, and drawing it
through holes in a plate of iron, by a process similar to
that employed in drawing wire of brass or iron.

HISTORY OF MADAGASCAR.

CHAP. XII.

Felling of timber — Number of persons constantly employed as wood-
cutters— Amount of labour required to convey the timber to the
capital — Native coolies, or bearers of burdens — Method of splitting
trees for planks or boards — Introduction of the use of the saw —
Native carpenters — Character of their work — Masonry in Madagascar —
Native potteries — Articles manufactured — Native kilns — Anecdote of
Radama — Introduction of brick-making — Malagasy rope-making, twine-
spinning, and basket-making — Introduction of the art of tanning — Im-
mense quantity of hides provided by the government — Native methods of
spinning and weaving — Simplicity of the Malagasy loom — Excellence of
the native cloths — Preparation of indigo — Methods of dyeing — Domestic
occupations of a day in Madagascar — Native hawkers or pedlars — Fond-
ness of the Malagasy for traffic — Native markets — Number, designation,
order, &c. — Prices of articles — Money-changers — Table of moneys —
Value of labour — Foreign commerce — Chief exports and imports.

Intimately connected with the occupations described in
the preceding chapter, and equally important to the
Malagasy, is the felling of timber, and the working in
wood. Forests of varied extent abound in different parts
of the country, and an immense belt of forest, of two or
three days' journey in width, surrounds the interior of the
island. These forests yield abundance of timber, of dif-
ferent colour and texture, and of various degrees of hard-
ness and durability. Timber is exceedingly dear at the
capital, being brought from the extensive forest of Angavo,
which stretches to a great distance on the north and south
of Antananarivo, from which it is about forty miles distant.
Multitudes of the natives are constantly employed in cutting
wood in the forests for the government, and others in drag-
ging it to the capital

316

HISTORY OF MADAGASCAR.

To fell the timber in the forest, for the use of the sove-
reign, is a service devolving upon the woodmen of govern-
ment. This work employs about seven hundred men, who
are, consequently, called " The seven hundred." To drag
the timber from the forest, is an occupation in which all
the districts in the neighbourhood are required by pro-
clamation to engage, with the exception of the privileged
classes, who claim some patent of immunity. The super-
intendence of this service is committed to one of the
judges, who, as occasion may require, issues his directions
to the head people of the districts and villages; these
give their orders to the peasantry, stating the quantity
demanded, and the time specified for its being delivered
at the capital.

The whole population is always liable to be employed
on government work, without remuneration, and for any
length of time. Hence it has happened, that many
have become government smiths, carpenters, &c. and
have continued such for life. In connexion with these
occupations, those of the marmittes,* native coolies or
bearers of burden, may be mentioned : they belong
almost exclusively to the race of the Bezanozano, the
extent and situation of whose country have been already
described.

Numbers of the people are employed through life in
felling and splitting of trees as a means of subsistence.
They convey, with immense labour, the trees or thick
planks which they cut in the forest, to the timber-markets,
of which there are several about midway between Anta-
nanarivo and Angavo, and to which the builders and others
repair for the purpose of making purchases. As the
natives of Madagascar have never employed their oxen

* Maro-nuta — many passing or crossing to and fro'.

HISTORY OF MADAGASCAR.

317

as beasts of burden, or trained tbem to the yoke, their
heavy trees are all conveyed by men employed to drag
them from the forests to the places where they are
used; and it is to this cause that the high price of tim-
ber at the capital is chiefly to be ascribed. Many of the
trees are brought to the capital whole, others are split
into planks. Formerly, like the natives of the South Sea
islands, and some other parts, the Malagasy never thought
of obtaining more than two planks or boards from a single
tree, however large that tree might be. This they effected
by splitting the tree in halves with their hatchets and
chisels, or wedges, and then chopping away the outside
till it was sufficiently reduced to answer the purpose for
which it was intended. The woodcutters still obtain the
thick boards they bring to market for sale in the same
manner ; but many of the natives at the capital have
been taught to use the pit-saw, and obtain as many boards
as the dimensions of the tree will admit.

Prior to the settlement of Europeans in Ankova, the
carpentry of the natives was as rude and simple as their
work at the forge. The use of the saw was unknown ; their
tools, in 18*20, when the first Missionaries arrived amongst
them, consisted of a hatchet, chisels of different sizes, a
rude sort of plane, a wooden hammer or mallet, a drill or
borer, worked by twisting it between the palms of the
hands, and a rule, or graduated measuring-rod, six or eight
feet long. Since that time, tools, used by workmen in
Europe, have been introduced, and have been readily
adopted by the native carpenters. Their work was often
strong, and usually neat, and in appearance well finished.
A description of the native houses, the construction of
which formed the chief occupation of the carpenters, has
been already given. They were, in some parts of the island,

318

HISTORY OF MADAGASCAR.

raised eighteen inches or two feet above ground, by means
of low posts driven into the earth ; the frame of the house
was joined together by mortise and tenon, notches and
pins, with fastenings of the fibrous roots or bark of tough
and durable plants, and were often ingeniously and firmly
bound together, though the entire building did not contain
a particle of iron.

The doors and windows of the Malagasy houses generally
consisted of a single board, and were opened or closed by
sliding them backwards and forwards in a groove, at the
top and bottom. The sides and ends of the house were
boarded ; the boards were fastened together by the edge of
one board being fitted into a groove formed in the edge of
the next. The chief article of furniture in all the houses
was a bedstead, supported by four posts, and fixed against
the side or end of the house. This was fastened with
pins, or tied together with the tough elastic fibres of a
native plant.

The only remaining employment connected with the
construction of the native dwellings, which it is necessary
to notice as affording occasional occupation to large bodies
of the people, is the putting on the roof or thatch, and the
preparation of the stems of reeds for the structure of an
inferior kind of hut. But so essential is it considered for
all men to be acquainted with thatching and rice planting,
and for all women to be skilled in weaving, that the practice
of these arts may be considered not as distinct handicrafts,
but as the ordinary work of the whole population.

The native carpenter formerly pursued his work in his
ordinary dwelling-house, or squatting on the ground in the
open air. In 1821, the saw was introduced to Madagascar,
and the natives taught the use of it by Monsieur Le Gros,
a French carpenter, who introduced many improvements in

HISTORY OF MADAGASCAR.

319

the native methods of working in wood, and taught them
how to make glue, and to use it in joining boards together.

The manufacture of large dishes, or fans for winnowing
and cleaning the rice, of wooden bowls, and the preparation
of wooden handles for their spades, occupied many of the
native carpenters. Lathes have within the last few years
been introduced, and many of the natives had made consi-
derable proficiency in the art of turning, when the Mis-
sionaries and the artisans were obliged to leave the country.
In the year 18*26, Mr. Cameron, an intelligent artisan, whose
scientific attainments were highly respectable, and who
was acquainted with building and machinery in general,
joined the Mission, and instructed many of the natives in
the most approved methods of working in wood; and by the
buildings he erected for the government, and the number
of natives whom he taught as apprentices, would have
greatly promoted the civilization of the people, had not the
cruel and bigoted persecution of the Christians by the
heathen government obliged him to leave the country.
Many of the natives have, however, made respectable pro-
ficiency in building, carpentry, and joiner}-, under the
instructions of Monsieur Le Gros and Mr. Cameron.

The chief works in which masonry is employed in Mada-
gascar, are the walls and pavement in the court-yard around
the houses of the sovereign, at the capital, and the chiefs in
different parts of the country, and in the construction of
the tombs and other monuments of the dead. The stone-
masons quarry their stones not by boring and blasting
them with powder, but by heating them with a fire kin-
dled along the line in which they wish to detach a piece
from the rock, and then dashing water on the parts they
have heated. The masons were not accustomed to saw
their stones, but hewed their surfaces perfectly smooth and

320

HISTORY OF MADAGASCAR.

level with small pointed hammers. In paving, or erecting
their structures of stone, they used a kind of red earth
for cement, until 1828, when Mr. Cameron discovered
lime in the province of Imerina, and taught the people to
burn it, and prepare excellent mortar. Many of the tombs
and cenotaphs of the nobles and warriors are durable monu-
ments of the industry, perseverance, and skill of the native
masons, and promise much for the nation, with the great
advantage which the discovery of excellent lime will afford
them.

Another important occupation, which has been long fol-
lowed by the people, is the manufacture of earthenware.
Earthenware is used in every house, and potteries are
found all over the island. The large jars used for holding
water, or for fetching it from the streams, and other kinds
of coarse earthenware, are well made and durable; it is
polished with a substance resembling plumbago, found in
several of the provinces. Their lighter earthen or crockery
ware is much more brittle than that of England, but is
still highly serviceable to the natives ; and the progress they
have made in this useful art, shows that they are far
advanced above a state of barbarism. Large quantities of
earthenware are made in the eastern parts of Aanradrano,
where a very suitable kind of clay is found in considerable
abundance. In this department of labour, females chiefly
are employed.* When the articles are sufficiently dry, a
sort of kiln is prepared by digging a hole in the earth, or
building a circular wall on the surface, on which husks of

* A curious circumstance is said to have occurred with regard to some
female potters. At the time of Radama's accession, orders had heen issued,
agreeably to former usages, that during the time of public mourning for his
father, no pottery should be made. Seven females, however, were found
at work, in disregard of the king's orders. Radama resolved not to put them
to death, but sentenced them to work incessantly. And as they chose not

HISTORY OF MADAGASCAR.

321

rice are strewn ; the vessels are then placed in the hole or
kiln, and covered with rice-husks, which are kindled, and
suffered to burn gradually, without being allowed to
blaze. Fresh husks are added to the fire till the contents
of the kiln are considered as sufficiently burnt, when
the fire is gradually extinguished, and the vessels after-
wards removed.

The walls of many of the houses in the capital, and
throughout the provinces, are of clay, as are also most of
the granaries for their rice, and their native furnaces ; but
until they were taught by the Missionary artisans, the
natives do not appear to have used bricks, either burnt or
dried in the sun. Clay, well adapted for making bricks,
was found in great abundance in many parts of Ankova ;
and in the year 1829, Mr. Cameron succeeded in making
excellent bricks, which were burnt in a kiln, resembling
those in England. The bricks were used in the con-
struction of furnaces for the manufacture of soap, potash,
and other valuable purposes, in connexion with the useful
arts taught by Mr. Cameron ; and there is reason to believe
that had Radama's life been prolonged, he would have
given all the encouragement in his power to the making
and burning of bricks, and that the mud-walled dwellings
of the capital would, in a short space of time, have been
very generally superseded by the clean, comfortable, and
substantial brick-built cottage.

The making of rope and twine is another occupation in
which many of the people are occasionally employed. They

to conform to the tokens of general mourning on the death of his father, he
ordered that they should not be allowed to leave off work to mourn for their
own parents, nor for the death of any of their relations. When the late
king died, they were consequently compelled to work during the ten
months of mourning observed by all other classes.

322 HISTORY OF MADAGASCAR.

use no wheels for this purpose, but spin or twist the hemp,
or other material of which their cordage is made, with the
hand. Besides the native hemp, the bark of the hibiscus,
and other native plants, and a species of long and tough
grass, are used for these purposes by the natives ; and their
twine and cordage, which they use in the manufacture of
fishing-nets and lines, in tying together the framework
of their houses, and many of their articles of furniture, are
both strong and durable. By the same process as that
employed in making their smaller cords, they manufacture
the large and strong ropes employed in dragging the im-
mense stones they use in the construction of their tombs,
and in conveying their largest timber from the forests to
the capital.

Numbers of the people, chiefly women, are also at times
employed in making mats, which are used for beds, for
covering the floors, or lining the walls of their houses ; they
are made of rushes, or fine grass, and are woven by the
hand, after the manner of the South Sea islanders. Closely
associated with this is the making of baskets, which are
manufactured of the same materials, and are in very
general use among the people. The baskets vary in size,
the largest holding rather more than a bushel ; in shape,
they are usually round or square, and are seldom consi-
dered completed until fitted with a cover.

To the occupations already noticed, as recently intro-
duced by the Missionary artisans, may be added the manu-
facture of leather.

It appears singular that the natives should never have
thought of using the skins of their oxen for any other pur-
pose than for making a rude sort of sandal, and covering
their drums on the shields. In these instances the skin
was used with the hair on, and nearly in the state in which

HISTORY OF MADAGASCAR. 323

it had been taken from the animal. In 1822, the London
Missionary Society sent out a number of artisans to pro-
mote the industry and civilization of the people, and among
them Mr. Canham went to instruct them in the art of
tanning and currying. His proposal was very cordially
acceded to by the king; but lime not having been at that
time discovered in the interior, his operations were delayed
until the year 1825. In 1828, the vats, and other parts of
the required apparatus, being complete, the king issued
orders that every ox slaughtered at the great festival should
be skinned, and the skin, and two feet from each ox, from
which oil might be extracted, taken to the tanyards, which
were situated at Ambohimandroso. The rump of every
ox killed by the people has, from the time they began to
feed upon the cattle, been considered as belonging to the
ruler or sovereign; one half of the rump the king ordered
the people to retain as a compensation for the skins which he
now required them to give up; instead of bringing the feet,
the people were afterwards directed to boil them, and bring
only the oil they contained. Upwards of 16,500 hides were
brought on this occasion, and on about half that number
the process of tanning was commenced in the month of
April, 1829. Bark, suitable for tanning, was found in the
forest: great difficulty, however, was experienced in ob-
taining the required supply ; and on the death of Radama,
his successor seemed but little disposed to encourage the
undertaking. A small quantity of excellent leather was
made. The natives are able to tan, not only the hides
of the ox, but also the calf, sheep, and dog skins; and
should a change in the government take place favourable
to industry and civilization, the manufacture of leather
would, undoubtedly, form a valuable addition to the pro-
ductive labour of the people.

y 2

324

HISTORY OF MADAGASCAR.

The chief occupation of importance that remains to be
noticed, is the manufacture of cloth. This is, next to the
cultivation of rice, perhaps the most general employment
of the people. Woven cloth is made from silk, cotton,
hemp, and the leaves of the rofia. A still coarser cloth is
made from the bark of a tree by simply beating it out with
a wooden mallet, in a manner similar to that in which cloth
is made by many of the inhabitants of the Asiatic or
Malayan archipelago, and the islands of the South Sea.

Spinning and weaving are regarded in Madagascar as
the appropriate employment of the females, and their
manner of performing, appears to a European exceedingly
tedious ; but time with them is not a matter of much consi-
deration. The materials are cleaned and pulled by the
hand, instead of being carded. The only implement
employed in spinning yarn or thread is a spindle, which
is used in the following manner: — Holding the ampela or
spindle in the right hand, and twisting the thread, which is
drawn out from a piece of carded cotton, held in the left,
they pull out a thread as long as the two hands can be
separated. This they wind up around the ampela, and
then repeat the operation till the spindle is filled. One
woman with the ampela is not able to spin more than a
fourth of the quantity that would be produced with a wheel
in the same time. Much time is therefore required for
spinning a sufficient quantity to make a piece of cloth five
yards long. Threads made by slitting the long inner leaves
of the rofia resemble those of flax or hemp, but as they sel-
dom exceed three or four feet in length, the natives are
accustomed to tie them together, till they are sufficiently
long to admit of being woven into cloth. The cloth is
always woven in the house in which the family reside, and
the loom is generally fixed near the door.

HISTORY OF MADAGASCAR. 325

In Ankova, the looms, which are extremely simple, are
placed so low in the floor, as to leave scarcely more than four
or five inches between the warp and the ground. Treadles
are not used in the interior, but on the coast it is common
to have both looms and treadles worked with the feet, so
as to open the warp after the manner of the Europeans.

When the thread is ready, the Hovas warp it by
driving four pieces of wood firmly into the ground, and
wind the thread around two of them, and between the
other two, according to the pattern laid before them.
Having finished this process, they tie together the threads
of the several colours which form the pattern, and remove
it into the loom, or put it up in a basket, until required.
If the warping be for common white cloth, it is easily
done; but if it be for diamond or coloured work, great
attention is required in counting and changing the different
threads.

The Malagasy loom is very simple in its construction,
consisting of two strong pieces of wood, rounded on the
side over which the threads of the warp are passed. These
pieces are called voditenona, or ends of the warp. They
are made of the branches of the rofia, and are put through
the warp in order to stretch it out at both ends. One of
these pieces of wood is passed through the warp at eacli
end, and fastened to posts in the floor. They are drawn
nearer together, or removed further apart, by cords tied
to posts, two of which are driven firmly into the ground
at each end. By this means the weaver can tighten or
slacken the warp, drawing up towards her what is done,
and bringing the remainder nearer as the progress of the
work may require.

The shuttle used by the Malagasy weaver is a piece of
round stick, pointed at one end for the purpose of being

326

HISTORY OF MADAGASCAR.

passed more easily between the threads. The knocker of
the weft, called tantanana, is made of wood, and resembles
a scythe. The woman employed in weaving puts this
between the threads of the warp, in order to open them,
and then, after throwing in the shuttle, knocks the threads
two or three times before she draws it out; and in this
manner, with the assistance of a moving rod in the warp
to open the threads, and the pressure of her left hand, the
process of weaving is continued.

The small rod placed across the warp, to regulate the
width of the cloth, is called tohatenona; besides which,
there are other two rods, for the purpose of keeping
separate the threads. The weaver also uses a small
bodkin, called tofy, for the same purpose. Most of the
females in Madagascar are supposed to be able to weave.

HISTORY OF MADAGASCAR.

327

In many instances, the garments used by all the members
of a family are home-made, being spun and woven by the
female members of the same; and when the comparatively
rude apparatus and simple process of their spinning and
weaving are considered, their attainments in this valuable
art are truly astonishing. The threads of their cloth are
even and well twisted, the weaving regular, and the pat-
terns in their silk and other variegated cloths remarkably
regular, exhibiting great attention, and often no ordinary
measure of fancy and good taste.

In 18*22, the Missionary Society sent out two artisans
to introduce the English wheel and loom; but though the
king, and many of the natives, appeared delighted with
the operation of both, the endeavour did not succeed ; and
the death of Mr. Rowlands, the weaver, and the return of
his companion to England, left the people still dependent
on the spindle and the simple native loom, for the manu-
facture of the chief part of their ordinary apparel.

A few native dyes are prepared in the country; but the
chief part of those used by the people are purchased from
European and Arab traders, and used with considerable
skill in colouring the silks, cottons, and rofia cloth.

There are many arts and manufactures in use amongst
the Malagasy, which seem to belong to the more advanced
stage of civilization than is indicated by their moral and
intellectual condition. The following ingenious methods
of making indigo dye are of this description.

The plant is first gathered, then cut in pieces, and
pounded. After which it is allowed to ferment in a damp
place until it becomes fetid ; and the moisture would con-
sequently be dried up, but that they use a preparation
of another plant, called beravina, which is first steeped
in hot water until the liquor becomes blue. With this

328

HISTORY OF MADAGASCAR.

they moisten the fermented indigo once a week for the space
of a whole year, by which time, they say, if properly done,
it will be excellent. In this state it is called fatobra.

The roots of the banana are also cut and dried, and
then burned to ashes. These ashes are pounded with a
little of the water used in sprinkling the fatobra ; after
which, they are formed into cakes, and dried before the
fire. The name of this composition is fondrana.

The fatobra and the fondrana are mixed together, and
boiled in water for a whole day. The liquor, after it is
sufficiently boiled, is put into a vessel, which must be
placed near the fire so as to be kept gently warm, and
the thread is then put into the liquid dye, where it remains
until the colour is sufficiently strong.

There is also another method of preparing indigo dye,
by stripping off the leaves from the plant, and pounding
them into a soft smooth mass, which is put into a basket,
and left in a damp place for three or more weeks, until
caterpillars appear in the mass. These caterpillars are
allowed to spin for themselves silky-looking coverings of
a reddish colour. The basket is then placed in an airy
situation, or even in the sun, so as to be well dried; and
it may then either be used immediately for dye, or kept
for any length of time. The name of fatobra is also given
to the dye in this state.

In order to prepare it for imparting the colour, they
take of the dried roots of the banana, four parts; of a
dried vegetable, called vato-fosa, one part ; and of a shrub
called tanantanampotsy, about one part, or, at any rate,
sufficient to kindle the others, and assist them in burning.
These three are then reduced to white clean ashes. Two
flat cakes of the fatobra, about eight inches in diameter,
and one inch thick, are then put into a vessel, which contains

HISTORY OF MADAGASCAR.

329

about six gallons of water. A quantity of the ashes, prepared
as above, are then added to the cakes, and more water
poured on. The vessel is kept in a warm place for three
days and nights. A peeled switch, of a kind of wood
which takes the colour well, is then used in stirring the
liquid for three days more, or until the switch appears
tinged with the precise shade of blue that is wanted.

The thread is alternately steeped in the dye for half an
hour at a time, and then dried ; after which it is steeped
again, and this is repeated for the space of from three
to six days. By these means a light and a dark blue
may be produced, which are both at times exceedingly
beautiful.

The manufacturers of the dye do not appear to pay
any very minute regard to the preparations of the dif-
ferent materials ; those who are accustomed to prepare it,
being able to guess at the proper quantity without much
difficulty.

The roots of the banana are found to contain a con-
siderable quantity of potash, with the addition of a large
proportion of neutral salts. The vato-fosa contains a
quantity of very good potash; and the ashes, when the
plant is burned, are of a fine white colour. The tanan-
tanampotsy is a soft wooded or spungy shrub, and, when
dried, is suitable for burning with the banana.

Amongst the occasional occupations of the Malagasy,
that of washing the linen must not pass unnoticed. This
is performed by the slaves, and in the following simple
but effectual manner. The clothes are taken to a brook,
or to the bank of some river, and there washed by being
dipped into the water, and then beaten on a large stone
with a smooth surface. Soap, if required, is purchased
in the markets. After being made thoroughly clean, the

330

HISTORY OF MADAGASCAR.

clothes are spread out to dry in the sun, and in this
manner are beautifully blanched. They are then neatly
folded, taken home, and laid in the wardrobe, (a box or
basket,) where they remain ready for use.

A description of the occupations of a day in Madagascar
may serve to illustrate still more minutely the general
habits and manners of the people.

The Malagasy rise early ; and in order to do this, it is
customary to have a cock roosting in the south-east corner
of the house, that he may give warning of the first ap-
proach of the morning. He first crows about three o'clock,
which is much too early to begin the occupations of the
day in a country where there is but little twilight, and
where the sun does not rise before six, He repeats his
call, however, about five, when, if any doubt should exist
as to the actual dawn of day, the master of the house
or one of his slaves opens the door, and, after glancing
towards the eastern horizon, exclaims, "It is morning."
The necessity for doing this, arises from the circumstance
of the house having no glass windows, and being therefore
entirely dark, except where a ray of light is admitted by
an accidental crevice. The door has no other fastening
than a piece of stick, about four inches in length, stuck
in like a wedge at the bottom, or let into a small groove
made for that purpose.

As soon as the family has risen, the master, and other
members of the household, squat themselves down beside
the fire-place, or outside the building, and stretching out
their naked arms, call to a slave to bring them water. A
slave then advances, carrying in his left hand an empty
pitcher, and in his right a zingia, or bullock's horn, with
a stick fixed into it for a handle. This is filled with water,
which he pours upon the hands of his master, who rubs

HISTORY OF MADAGASCAR.

331

them together, and dashes some of the water into his face,
while the slave holds the pitcher or wooden bowl beneath.
In the same manner the rest of the family are attended
upon, the zingia being replenished by dipping it into the
siny-be, or large water-jar. The slaves then assist each
other to wash in the same way, none using the napkin to
wipe off the water, but some rubbing it off with the lamba,
and others leaving it to dry in the sun. After this ope-
ration, the master dismisses his servants, or accompanies
them to their respective occupations.

At home the mistress ordinarily employs herself in ar-
ranging her room, and weaving. There are ordinarily a
greater number of servants than can be constantly employed
where the wants of the people are so few. One of these,
perhaps, will remove the pigs or other animals from the
corner of the house, by driving them out ; another will re-
lease the calf from the post to which it is tied within the
house ; while another milks the cow. These, and other sim-
ple employments, with long intervals of squatting on the
ground, occupy the slaves until the time of preparing for
the first meal. This is not ordinarily taken until eleven
or twelve o'clock, and the hour is computed by the length
of the shadows on the ground.

Out -door labourers in Madagascar continue at work
from the morning till sunset, when, about six or seven in
the evening, thousands may be seen returning from the
rice-grounds, markets, and distant fields, bearing their
spades on their shoulders, and bundles on their backs,
sometimes cheered as they pass along by a native bard,
who, seated on the ground, will chant his short but
lively songs, descriptive of the pleasure of returning home
after the toil of the day is over. On reaching their dwell-
ing, another meal is spread, exactly resembling that of

332

HISTORY OF MADAGASCAR.

the morning; and while this is preparing, as well as after
it is dismissed, the family amuse themselves with cheerful
conversation. The day often closes with dancing and
singing; after which they spread upon the ground their
simple bedding, which consists of one or two mats, on
which they repose until chanticleer awakes them in the
morning.

The occupation in which the people especially delight, is
traffic carried on by hawking different things about for sale.
Some go down to the coast, and obtain articles of British
manufacture from the merchants. Others purchase articles
manufactured by their own countrymen, in the hope of
realizing some profit by selling them. Perhaps no class
of men gain less than these hawkers, certainly none
endure greater hardships; yet none are so devoted to
their employment, and so unwilling to exchange it for
another. The native songs often describe the mpiva-
votra, hawkers, sitting patiently all day at the market, or
travelling from house to house until the sun sets upon
their path, yet unwilling to cook a meal of rice until their
hearts have been encouraged by obtaining some profit on
their goods.

To a corresponding feeling, in all probability, is to be
ascribed the excessive fondness of the Malagasy for the
public markets; these are the most favourite places of
resort for all classes. There is not only a market con-
taining a general assortment of goods, held daily at the
capital, but three or four large markets are also held at
different distances from Tananarivo and from each other,
every day in the week in rotation, in different parts of the
province. They are always attended by a vast concourse
of people from the adjoining districts, like the great annual
fairs held in England.

HISTORY OF MADAGASCAR.

333

To these markets all the productions of the country,
animal and vegetable, and the various native manufactures
and foreign importations, are brought for sale. Here also
slaves are publicly bought and sold like cattle, and public
kabarvs, or messages from the sovereign, are announced.

The situations selected for these markets are usually
ample fields of level ground, at no great distance from
some principal town, and it is called by the day of the
week on which the market is held there. Hence the
familiar expression, "You can buy your timber at Thurs-
day"— that is, at the market held on Thursday.

No shops, booths, stalls, or sheds are used in the mar-
kets. Every article is spread upon the ground usually
on mats. No regular order of squares or rows is observed,
and the purchasers must be content to thread their way
in all perplexing directions through this labyrinth of com-
modities and sellers.

The only order is, that persons who have similar articles
for sale, usually sit near one another. Some of them have
one or two of the articles they sell, fastened to the top of
a long pole, which is fixed in the ground near the place
on which their goods are spread out. This is used as a
kind of sign on the part of the dealers, and serves to
guide those who are in search of the articles thus exhibited.
Cattle are collected in large numbers for sale at the
extremities of the markets, and the butchers usually take
their place near them. Then in the body of the market
will be found the dealers in spears, spade-handles, and
cutlery ; next in order, the sellers of cloth, of lambas, of
cotton and silk for spinning and weaving; adjoining these,
perhaps, the sellers of sugar, tobacco, and snuff, then of
honey, salt, and soap, earthenware, wooden bowls, and
silver chains, beads, necklaces, silks, and ornaments ; then

334

HISTORY OF MADAGASCAR.

rice, charms, medicines, fruit, poultry; and then money-
changers, and the sellers of scales and weights. There
are sold also pieces of meat ready cooked, boiled manioc,
and draughts of fresh water.

The natives make use of a hollowed block of wood,
which they call a vata, for measuring out their rice ; and
they measure their cloth by stretching out their two
hands to the extent of a fathom, or two yards, which mea-
sure they call refy. But they have also a rod equal to
refy, which is divided into quarters, and even into measure-
ments as small as a finger's breadth.

Oxen are sold in the markets, but horses by private
agreement. Goats are not allowed by the idols, any more
than pigs, to enter Imerina, but they are numerous in the
southern Betsileo, where they are sold and eaten. Radama
had some goats brought to his country-seat, called Maha-
zoarivo; but after his death, they were driven back to their
former territory by order of the queen.

Animals are exhibited for sale, but, except on the day of
the annual festival, they are seldom seen so fat as in the
markets of London. On the day of their mandro, i.e.
new year's day, bullocks that have been fattened for
twelve months or more, are sometimes seen of so prodi-
gious a weight as scarcely to be able to support them-
selves.

In making purchases, the Malagasy are adepts in the
art of bargaining or disputing. To 4 4 miady varotra," or, in
other words, to dispute the price, seems to be as essentially
connected with a purchase, as opening the eyes is with
vision. Every one asks for more than he intends to accept,
or ever hopes to obtain. All are aware of this, and
therefore all contend for an abatement. The seller and
the purchaser then generally concede something, until they

HISTORY OF MADAGASCAR.

335

gradually approximate, and at last agree. An immense
length of time is frequently spent in a wordy contest for
the value of one penny. Bargains are usually concluded
by the parties buying and selling exchanging the salutation,
Soavatsara, " may it be good and well."

The Malagasy have no circulating medium of their own.
Dollars are known more or less throughout the island ; but
in many of the provinces trade is carried on principally by
an exchange of commodities. The Spanish dollar, stamped
with the two pillars, bears the highest value. For sums
below a dollar, the inconvenient method is resorted to in the
interior, of weighing the money in every case. Dollars are
cut up into small pieces, and four iron weights are used for
the half, quarter, eighth, and twelfth of a dollar. Below
that amount, divisions are effected by combinations of the
four weights, and also by means of grains of rice, even
down so low as one single grain — " vary iray venty," one
plump grain, valued at the seven hundred and twentieth
part of a dollar.

The following is a table of the moneys thus used: —

No. 1. Loso One-half Dollar.

2. Kirobo One-fourth

3. Sikajy One-eighth

4. Roavoamena . . . One-twelfth . . .

These four are estimated by the single weights, above

named; other, and smaller amounts, have their specific

denominations as annexed : —

Voamena . . Twenty-fourth of a Dollar, made by putting No. 4 wt.

against No. 3.

Lasiray . . Sixteenth . . . Half a sikajy.

Lasi-roa . . A lasiray and a voamena.

Lasitelo . . A lasiray and a roavoamena.

Venty .... Sixth of a dollar, sikajy, and a voamena.

Raimbilanja . Sikajy and a roavoamena.

Sasanangy . . Kiroba and ditto.

336

HISTORY OF MADAGASCAR.

Small sums are the ilavoamena . . one-half voamena.

eranambatra . one-third ditto,
latsa-pahenina, less by a sixth than a voamena.
And then, as ten rice-grains are counted to one eranambatra, sums under an
eranambatra are counted one grain, two grains, &c. up to nine —
That is, 720 grains one dollar

360 ...

one-half

loso

180 ...

one-fourth

kirobo

90 ...

one-eighth

sikajy

60 ...

one-twelfth

roavoamena

45 ...

one-sixteenth

lasiray

30 ...

one-twenty-fourth

voamena

10 ...

one-seventy-second . . .

eranambatra

The money-changers form a distinct class of traders;
they carry on their business in the markets, not by lending
money at interest, but exchanging it. If the money-changer
gives a whole round dollar for the weight of it in cut
money, or pieces of a dollar, the receiver of the whole
dollar must give sandamporansa, from one-twenty-fourth to
one-eighth of a dollar extra, according to the rate of
exchange on that day. When the money-changer buys in
whole dollars, he also gives in pieces of money, whatever
the rate of exchange may be beyond the weight of the
dollar. The rate of exchange varies almost daily, and a
whole dollar is sometimes worth, in cut money, one-sixth
more than its own weight It is always highest when the
army takes the field, as many who possess cut money wish
to exchange it for whole dollars, and at this time the money-
changers reap a plentiful harvest.*

Money is nearly the only article weighed in the markets.
Most of the goods are sold by measure : rice by means of
bushels; meat, by the eye; snuff, by the spoon, or small
measure; native lambas, by the length; wood, by its dimen-

* The Malagasy generally carry the money they have about their persons,
tied up in one corner of their lamba or scarf. The cutting of this corner
is deemed one of the capital offences, and is very severely punished.

HISTORY OF MADAGASCAR.

337

sions ; fuel, by the bundle ; thatching, by number. Gun-
powder is sold by the government by weight of dollars.
Slaves are sold according to their age, strength, and
beauty! In this iniquitous traffic, a good-looking slave,
either male or female, always fetches a few dollars more
than one not favoured in that respect.

Prices vary in different parts of the island. Near the
coast provisions are dearer than in the interior, in conse-
quence of frequent purchases made by the captains of
vessels. At a distance from the coast, all common articles
of food may be obtained at low prices. On the average,
about a bushel of the best picked white rice may be had
for one shilling sterling, and common red rice at about one-
third less. Of poultry, ducks and fowls may be purchased
at about a dollar for eighteen or twenty; six geese may be
had for the same sum; and of turkeys, four or five. A good
young horse, fit to ride, cannot be bought under forty or
fifty pounds, but there are others as low as twenty. A
bullock costs from three to eight dollars. A cow and
young calf, three or four. Sheep and pigs are about
one shilling, and from that to two, each. In the season,
about twenty or thirty good pineapples cost two or three
pence ; and a peck of grapes, or of bananas, may be had for
the same money. There are few other native fruits to be
valued in the interior, except limes. The prices of all
articles have greatly increased during the last ten years,
and especially that of rice.

The value of labour amongst the Malagasy may be
judged of by this scale of prices. It is extremely low.
Many work merely for their rice and a small quantity of
" laoka" — any kind of meat given as a relish with it. If
paid in money, about two-pence per diem is the amount
commonly given, in addition to the labourer's food. Smiths

i. z

338

HISTORY OF MADAGASCAR.

and carpenters obtain about double the sum. When work
is done by hire, it is most frequently by contract. A master
will often hire out his slave at the rate of five dollars,
rather more than twenty-one shillings sterling per annum,
with provisions and clothing.

The natives are in the habit of lending their slaves to
assist their neighbours and friends in dragging stones for
graves, removing their houses, &c, and they borrow again
in their turn. They have thus less occasion to hire labour
than would otherwise be requisite. The free people are
also in the habit of assisting one another by their personal
labours. In all such cases the parties requiring aid find
provisions during the time of labour, and then usually
give some kind of feast, or distribution of meat, at its
termination.

Foreign commerce has long been carried on with Mada-
gascar. Arabs from Muscat have for many years been
accustomed to trade with the people of Mojanga on the
eastern coast. The Imaum of Muscat formerly maintained a
deputy, who governed at this port. Many Arabs frequently
brought their merchandise, which generally consisted of
raw silk, cloth, earrings, finger-rings, beads, necklaces, pre-
cious stones, swords, powder, white cloth, &c. to the capital
for sale. The last party of merchants arrived in 1829,
before the queen's coronation. The fine river Betsiboka
being navigable for canoes from Mojanga to within fifty or
sixty miles of the capital, gives great facility for a regular
trade between this port and Ankova.

Numbers of the natives of India, chiefly from the Presi-
dency of Bombay, have at different periods visited Mojanga,
for the purpose of trade, and have brought their mer-
chandise to the capital, where some have remained to
dispose of the goods, while the rest have returned in their

HISTORY OF MADAGASCAR.

339

ships to India, generally to Bombay or Surat, for a further
supply. Those remaining at the capital have usually
opened a house for the sale of their goods, and employed
the natives to carry their articles through the city and
neighbourhood for sale. Though they went to see the
Hova markets, yet they confined the sale of their goods to
their own houses, or to the natives whom they employed
as hucksters. They generally brought silk, Indian shawls,
white cloth, beads, precious stones, and necklaces.

Americans have sometimes traded with the inhabitants
of Mojanga for hides, beef, and gums, giving in exchange
cloth, muskets, powder, swords, hats, clothes, chairs, and
cast-iron pots.

In recent years the chief foreign trade has been with
Mauritius, the Cape of Good Hope, England, and America.
The proximity of Mauritius to Madagascar favours frequent
intercourse, and a considerable trade is carried on between
them, excepting during the unhealthy season on the coast
of Madagascar. Large numbers of excellent cattle, and
occasionally rice and dried fish, are sent from Tamatave,
Vohimaro, and other ports, to Mauritius and Bourbon.

The taste and habits of the Malagasy in favour of foreign
commerce are increasing ; they prefer articles of foreign
manufacture to those made in their own country, excepting
in those things in which they endeavour to imitate the
works of their ancestors, viz., in the production of articles
that are purely native, and are esteemed as such. During
the reign of Radama, the articles of foreign manufacture
in greatest demand, and for which the highest prices were
paid, were horses, saddles and bridles, scarlet broad cloth,
gold lace of various breadths, red satin, purple, green, and
yellow silk, silk handkerchiefs, fine silk in skeins for mixing
with their own in weaving the kasena, or green, purple,

z 2

340

HISTORY OF MADAGASCAR.

and red silk velvet, hats and caps ; fine calico for shirting,
and coloured prints, gloves, sewing-thread and silk, haber-
dashery and hosiery. Epaulets of gold, earrings, finger-
rings, watches, and small musical boxes. Next to these
may be named hardware and cutlery ; such as penknives,
scissors, needles, cast-iron pots or kettles, earthenware, and
glass. To these may be added, blue and white Pondicherry
cloth, salt, arrac, and rum, introduced among the inha-
bitants of the provinces near the coast. Large quantities
of salt are carried up into Ankova, and sold at a very high
price in the markets.

Madagascar is rich in valuable articles of export, but
its resources are yet comparatively unknown. During the
reign of Radama, the demand for articles of European
manufacture increased with astonishing rapidity. Since
his death it has declined; and the policy of the present
government seems to threaten the entire cessation of all
trade with the English Should a more liberal policy be
pursued by the native government, the favourable situation
of the island, and the amount of its population, would render
its commerce an object of vast importance to the manufac-
turing and mercantile interests of our country.

HISTORY OF MADAGASCAR.

341

CHAP. XIII.

Government of Madagascar — monarchical and military — Extent to which
the wall of the sovereign is absolute — Instance of personal devotedness
to the sovereign — Duties of the sovereign — Importance attached to
hereditary rank — Gradations in rank — Members of the royal family —
Civil and military officers — The king's household — Native police — Num-
ber and dignity of honours connected with the public service — Nature of
ancient military tactics and fortifications — Formation of the army after
the European model — Military punishment of burning — Employment of
singing women during a campaign — Revenue of Madagascar — Enume-
ration of the sources whence it is derived — Veneration of the natives for
the popular traditions and usages supposed to be derived from the prac-
tice of their ancestors — Combination of the regal and sacerdotal character
in the person of the sovereign — National festivals — The feast of the new
year — Description of the ceremonies observed — Benedictions pronounced
— Number of the cattle slaughtered at the feast — Modes of admini-
stering the oath of allegiance — Animals slaughtered on the occasion —
Formation of new laws — Proclamations and edicts — Different modes of
punishment : crucifixion, burning alive, flogging to death, fines, banish-
ment, or reduction to slavery — The sovereign's decision final — Operation
of native laws on foreigners — National councils — Office and duties of
the judges — Public mode of conducting trials — Code of laws promulgated
by the present queen in the year 1828.

The government of Madagascar is in theory neither des-
potic nor monarchical, but a mixture of both, with a
preponderance of the former. It might with propriety be
termed a modified despotism ; there being on one hand too
many public assemblies of the people, under the pretended
necessity for consultation upon the affairs of the nation,
to justify the designation despotic; on the other hand,
the sovereign is invested with too much authority, beyond
the control of fixed and definite laws, to be considered

342

HISTORY OF MADAGASCAR.

merely as a monarch agreeably to the definitions of Mon-
tesquieu. The sovereign of Madagascar claims nominally a
right to do whatever he pleases with the life and property
of his subjects, and so far he is a despot But customs
have in some instances the force of law — the will of the
people is respected ; and so far despotism is modified, and
the despot becomes a monarch. This modified kind of
supreme authority is applicable, on a limited scale, to
the chieftainship of an independent province, and on a
broad scale to the sovereignty of the island. For some
years past, however, the increasing power of the military
officers, and the extent to which the troops have been
employed by the sovereign, have rendered the government
almost a pure military despotism.

Succession appears to be hereditary in Madagascar,
but not necessarily so ; and for the simple but sufficient
reason assigned by the people, that cases may occur in
which the eldest son may not possess talents for go-
verning. The sovereign nominates his successor, he being
supposed both to have the right of such nomination,
and to be best qualified, by his knowledge of his kingdom
and his family, to decide upon the exigencies of the former
and the capacities of the latter. His nomination has also
all the importance derived from the popular idea that the
king can do no wrong, and that, according to his own
assertion, as well as the belief of his people, the wisdom
of his ancestors, called roambinifolo manjaka, "twelve kings,"
is united in him.

The sovereign accordingly appoints his immediate suc-
cessor, and frequently extends his appointment to three
or four successors, or fixes the line for future generations.
Should he fail of making the appointment, or should un-
foreseen circumstances prevent the appointments taking

HISTORY OF MADAGASCAR.

343

effect, the nomination to the succession rests with the
nobles, and in this case the decision would most probably
rest with the strongest. Unless positive disqualification
exist, the eldest son is usually chosen. The rule, however,
is not invariable. Andriamasinavalona, Radama's grand-
father, divided his kingdom equally between his four sons
and a nephew. Radama's father put to death his eldest
son for ambitiously aspiring to his father's government
while he was still living ; and he himself had been chosen
to the government in preference to the lineal descendants
of his predecessors. It is said that the line of succession
by Radama was limited by his father to the issue of a
certain marriage, appointed for him by parental authority.
By this nominal marriage, he, however, had no issue, and
the crown was placed on the head of the nominal widow.

So devotedly attached are the people to the religious
observance of such appointments, that a struggle for
ascendancy, without its support, could be maintained only
by force of arms. Females are not excluded by law from
holding the reins of government, though it is not exactly
in harmony with the feelings of the Malagasy to admit of
female domination.

The power of the monarch is nominally absolute, and to
a very considerable extent really so. He is lord of the
soil, owner of all property, and master of his subjects.
Their time and services are at his command : to refuse
either, would be resented not merely with displeasure, but
with the loss of life and the confiscation of property.
But the genius of the Malagasy, and long-established
usage, seem to require at least the show of justice in the
proceedings of their sovereign. Accustomed to servility,
subjects might submit for a time to the enaction of mea-
sures however arbitrary and capricious, but disaffection

344

HISTORY OF MADAGASCAR.

would necessarily be generated, and rebellion ultimately
follow.

It is possible that the long-conflicting claims of hos-
tile chieftains have afforded so many opportunities for
the exhibition of loyalty or disaffection on the part of their
respective adherents, that a national lesson has been taught,
and a national feeling inspired, in which rulers and subjects
have equally participated. The sovereign who would hold
his kingdom securely, must therefore reign in the affections
of his people by the steady administration of justice, and
the mild but firm execution of laws which approve them-
selves to the judgment of the nation as salutary and
equitable.

Madagascar is therefore not such a land of degraded
slaves, as to render a tyrant inviolably safe. But a
paternal monarch is hailed and adored by the people, who
were accustomed to call Radama, Andriamanitra, (god.)
The Malagasy are not impatient of control. They are
sufficiently aware of the value of a regular government,
as securing their own safety, to render a willing submission
to its restraints. To power blended with beneficence —
to authority tempered with mildness — and right enforced
by persuasion and reason, — there are perhaps few people,
of the same grade in civilization, who could be found more
disposed to concede respect, to render submission, or to
perform service, than the Malagasy.

As a proof of the veneration with which their sovereign
is regarded by the Malagasy, the following circumstance,
related by Mr. Cameron, may not be thought unworthy of
insertion.

Towards the close of the reign of Andriamasinava-
lona, when he became sickly and feeble, the sikidy was
consulted, with a view to the restoration of his health.

HISTORY OF MADAGASCAR.

345

The following result was the consequence of the directions
of the oracle. A speech was first delivered to the people,
offering great honours and rewards to the family of any
individual who would freely offer himself to be sacrificed,
in order to the king's recovery. The people shuddered
at the idea, and ran away in different directions. One
man, however, presented himself for the purpose, and his
offer was accepted. The sacrificer girded up his loins,
sharpened his knife, and bound the victim. After which,
he was laid down with his head towards the east, upon a
mat spread for the purpose, according to the custom with
animals on such occasions, when the priest appeared, to pro-
ceed with all solemnity in slaughtering the victim by cutting
his throat. A quantity of red liquid, however, which had
been prepared from a native dye, was spilled in the cere-
mony; and, to the amazement of those who looked on,
blood seemed to be flowing all around. The man, as
might be supposed, was unhurt ; but the king rewarded him
and his descendants with the perpetual privilege of exemp-
tion from capital punishment for any violation of the laws.
The descendants of the man to this day form a particular
class, called Tay maty manota, which may be translated,
"Not dead, though transgressing." Instances frequently
occur, of individuals of this class appropriating bullocks,
rice, and other things belonging to the sovereign, as if
they were their own, and escaping merely with a repri-
mand, while a common person would have to suffer death,
or be reduced to slavery.

The office of sovereign in Madagascar, though main-
tained with considerable pomp and barbaric splendour,
has no common measure of toils, anxieties, and difficulties.
The monarch may consult with whom he pleases ; and he
is in the habit of assembling his people under the pretext

346 HISTORY OF MADAGASCAR.

of consulting them, and laying before them plans — from
which, however, they never dissent — but the final respon-
sibility of the affairs of government rests with himself. He
is the father of his kingdom, and its numerous and diver-
sified officers are under his independent control. He is
invested with the legislative and executive authority. All
laws emanate from him. The army is raised, and its officers
are appointed by him. Peace and war are made by him.
All important civil cases are finally decided by him ; and
death can be inflicted or remitted only by his decree. In
some instances he goes out to war in person, and then takes
as a right the command of the army.

In right of precedence, the members of the royal family
hold of course the next rank to the sovereign. The
mother of the reigning prince, if living, usually takes the
highest rank next to her son; the king's wife, or the
queen, next; and the other wives, according to their
seniority; then brothers, and their wives, sisters, chil-
dren, &c. As the Malagasy are extremely tenacious of
Ihe honours due to their rank, great attention is paid to
the strict rules of etiquette in all that pertains to pre-
cedence.

So many of the prejudices of the Malagasy with regard
to rank or precedence, are derived from traditions of their
former chieftains, that some mention of them here may not
be out of place. The most important amongst the ances-
tors of the royal family, appears to have been Rabiby, or
Ralambo, who is mentioned in all proclamations as the father
of the present race of princes in Imerina ; and whatever may
be the collateral branch from which he descends, the reigning
prince of Madagascar must be able to trace his descent to
Ralambo. He it is to whom tradition assigns the honour
of having first given his preference to that particular part

HISTORY OF MADAGASCAR.

347

of the bullock which is still, in commemoration of his
decision, set apart for the monarch at the great annual
festival of the new year. The descendants, both of the
eldest and the second sons of Ralambo, seem to have been
people of high rank, holding many privileges. The dis-
trict occupied by those of the eldest son is still called
Ambohimalaza, i. e. " the illustrious village." Both these
clans or castes have certain privileges, which they main-
tain with extreme tenacity. They only are allowed to
perform the ceremony of burying kings and nobles.
Another chief of importance was Andriamasinavalona,
king of Tananarivo, who first reduced under his authority
the whole province of Imerina. This chieftain had twelve
sons. He first instituted the custom of each monarch
having twelve wives ; and his descendants, who are reputed
to be of royal blood to the present day, possess various
privileges, amongst the principal of which is the liberty of
intermarrying with the royal family.

The nobles, or Andriambaventy, rank next to the mem-
bers of the royal family. These are also the judges.
Their number is not fixed, but usually there are about
twelve residing at the capital. Their business is to hear
causes, and decide by what appears to them the equity of
the case. In important affairs their decision is taken to
the sovereign, whose word is final. They are also employed
in delivering messages from the sovereign to the people.
This duty always devolved on them, prior to the formation
of the army upon the European model. After that period,
Radama sometimes sent communications through the
medium of a military officer of high rank. In this he
might have two objects ; one, to diminish the authority and
importance of the nobles ; and the other, to elevate the
character and flatter the vanity of his military officers.

348 HISTORY OF MADAGASCAR.

Most of the judges possess a menakely (feudal estate) in
different parts of Ankova; and the people living on such
estates, though free, are not only obliged to work for their
feudal lord, but are dependent upon him for his decision
as a judge in all cases of dispute between them and their
neighbours.

The officers immediately under the judges are the
Farantsa, who may be regarded as the civil police of the
country. Their duty is to take charge of the money due
to the sovereign from fines, taxes, and confiscations; to
receive the rice and other productions falling to the sove-
reign from the land ; and, in fact, to undertake the custody
of whatever contributions the law requires for the govern-
ment.

Another class of civil officers consists of the Vadintany.
These are employed as the king's couriers. They carry
the messages from the government to the head-men of
villages, on all public business, and constitute a sort of
general watch, as constables of the peace throughout the
country.

These messengers, immediately on hearing the proclama-
tion from the king's ministers and judges, hasten with the
royal mandate to their respective districts, in each of which
a large market is held weekly, one every day of the week
in rotation. Where the markets are held, there is usually
a mound, on the top of which the Vadintany stands, and
fires a gun as a signal for the people to listen to the pro-
clamation of the king. Should there be no market held
on the day when these orders are to be made public, the
Vadintany delivers his message to the heads of the district,
whose duty it then is to make it known to the people.
The proclamations sometimes relate to the prohibition of
certain articles, such as intoxicating liquors, tobacco, pigs,

HISTORY OF MADAGASCAR.

349

and the use of silver plates and forks, but frequently to
more important affairs.

The only class of civil officers remaining to be noticed,
consists of the Ambonin-jato, "over a hundred," or centurion.
They are the immediate organs of communication with the
people. The judges deliver their orders to the Vadintany,
and these convey them to the Ambonin-jato. All directions
for attending to public service are conveyed in the same
manner.

The Maroserana (military officers) were those heads of
districts who had submitted willingly to Radama and his
father, and others who had distinguished themselves by
their bravery in war, while the king was without disciplined
troops. Some of the royal blood were also amongst this
class. They were men of greater influence and weight in
the court than the judges ; most of them possessing larger
menakelys (estates), and a greater number of tenants or
vassals. They were not only more wealthy, but more ex-
pert in war, and exhibited superior taste in the adoption of
European dress and customs. Radama was in the habit
of conversing frequently with them about the affairs of the
kingdom ; many were admitted to his table, and he occa-
sionally dined with them; while the judges were never
admitted to an equal degree of favour.

The Maroserana had great influence over the people, in
carrying any new plan into execution at the request of the
king, or in preparing their minds to receive any royal pro-
clamation. From this distinguished body his privy council
was formed, and they constituted the principal officers of
his undisciplined army. When Mr. Brady, an English
sergeant, began to discipline the troops of Radama, in 1816,
the maroserana were the first men placed under his care,
and were thus qualified to become the chief officers of the

350

HISTORY OF MADAGASCAR.

army. But the king afterwards becoming jealous of their
influence and power, placed them in garrisons in the
unhealthy parts of the island, where most of them fell
victims to disease, and others being cut off" after the de-
cease of Radama, the title of maroserana is now extinct, or
merged in that of military officers who have obtained dis-
tinguished honour.

The court of the queen is now composed of the andriam-
baventy, or judges, and the principal officers of the army,
called manamboninahitra, or possessors of honour.

During the reign of Radama, the king acted in the
capacity of commander-in-chief as well as that of sovereign.
No official council of ministers was held under him farther
than might serve to maintain the appearance of a public
consultation. But he was accustomed occasionally to ask
the opinion of his officers separately without explaining to
them what he had in view; and after having heard them
all, he would decide upon the measures to be adopted.
His army consisted of four divisions, according to the four
districts of Imerina; and the commander-in-chief, next to
the king, resided at the capital, for the purpose of executing
the orders of his majesty.

Since the death of Radama, there has been, by the ap-
pointment of the queen, a commander-in-chief of all the
army; and he, aided by the military staff, has all the
responsibility of conducting the wars, of suppressing rebel-
lion and revolt, of appointing garrisons and governors
around the coast, and of protecting the country. This
commander, therefore, and his military officers, form an
important part of the queen's council ; while the judges,
in their civil capacity, representing the citizens, or bour-
geois, constitute the remaining part. It is, however, not
unfrequently, that the commander-in-chief, with the officers

HISTORY OF MADAGASCAR. 351

of his staff, carry into execution plans of their own forming
without the knowledge of the queen.

The king's household was composed of male and female
servants. Those who were the principal domestics, being
free, served him for honour, without pecuniary remunera-
tion. They were assisted by persons from among the
Tsiarondahy, a clan of liberated or redeemed slaves of the
government. These servants were appointed to different
departments in the economy of the palace ; some taking
charge of the king's jewels, clothes, and private property ;
some having the preparation and care of the royal wardrobe ;
while some attended to the king's table, for which others
prepared the food. Some of his principal confidential
male servants were occasionally employed in conveying
orders to the civil and military officers, from whom they
also carried back messages to the king. These servants
were called the officers of the palace.

The king's body-guard, when he rode out, consisted of
about forty or sixty Tsiarondahy, some of whom carried
loaded guns, others swords, and others spears. Of these a
number walked before him to clear the road, while the rest
followed in his train. These, however, were but his ordi-
nary body-guard, while he remained at home. When he
went out to war, or appeared in a public assembly on the
martial field, the army of the capital, consisting of three
thousand men, most of whom were dressed in the British
uniform, composed his honourable guard, or Tsimandoa, in
addition to that of the Tsiarondahy.

An extensive system of internal police was instituted
by Radama, in 18*26, combining the civil and military
character. The service performed is principally of a civil
nature. The rank and title of the officers are strictly mili-
tary, consisting of corporals, sergeants, captains, colonels,
and generals.

352 HISTORY OF MADAGASCAR.

Honours are conferred in Madagascar by the number of
the dignity.* Rank is conferred by number, from one
upwards. The first honour is the lowest. The scale
ascends thus: — Privates of the line occupy the first rank,
and field-marshals the thirteenth or highest. Higher dig-
nities may be created as marks of favour and rewards of
service ; but at present the arrangement stands thus —

Honour the 1st — Voninahitra voalohany Privates.

Honour the 2nd — Voninahitra fahaova Corporals.

Honour the 3rd — Voninahitra fahateio Serjeant.

Honour the 4th — Voninahitra fahefatra Serjeant Major.

Honour the 5th — Voninahitra fahadimy Lieutenant.

Honour the 6th — Voninahitra fahenina Captain.

Honour the 7th — Voninahitra fahafito Major.

Honour the 8th — Voninaoitra fahavalo Lieutenant Colonel.

Honour the 9th — Vaninahitra fahasivy Colonel.

Honour the 10th — Voninahitra fahafolo Colonel folo.

Honour the 11th — Voninahitra faharaikam- ) ^ .

binifolo.... {Gener*l.

Honour the 12th — Voninahitra faharoambinifolo . Field Marshal.

Honour the 13th — Voninahitra fahatelambinifolo. Field Marshal-

The word " folo," annexed to colonels of the tenth rank,
signifies ten, and intimates that those colonels are the
highest, and hold an intermediate rank between colonels
and generals.

The same names and numbers are applied, as already
remarked, to the officers of the civil department; so that a
person, who is no soldier, if asked, " What number is your
honour?" or, 66 What degree your voninahitra?" might an-
swer, "The seventh — the ninth," &c, or " I am a captain —
a major — or a colonel.' This might seem to create some
confusion ; but it secures considerable order in the arrange-
ments made for the internal government of the country,
and probably supersedes the jealousy and dissatisfaction

* The word for honour in Malagasy is highly significant, and conveys a
moral lesson on its vanity — " Voninahitra, i. e. " The flower of the grass !"

HISTORY OF MADAGASCAR.

353

which might pervade the hosom of many a liege subject of
the realm.

Until the year 1816, when Radama availed himself of the
services of Mr. Brady in disciplining his troops, the armies
led to the field by the princes or chieftains of Madagascar,
appear to have been irregular bodies of men, fighting
more for the sake of booty than with any union of purpose.
Fire-arms were in Imerina during the time of Radama's
father ; but how much earlier is not known with certainty,
and they were too expensive to be in general use. The
native weapons originally employed consisted of sticks
and stones, shields and spears. With these they were able
to defend themselves, and to make their attack on their
opponents ; and in the absence of the more effective instru-
ments of war, brought to perfection by European civiliza-
tion, the native weapons were found sufficiently annoying
and destructive. The sticks were usually sharp-pointed
at one end; their spears were made of native iron, with
strong wood hafts or handles. Stones appear to have been
principally used by way of defence. Towns being built on
eminences, afforded an opportunity to the besieged inhabit-
ants of hurling or rolling down ponderous stones upon the
assailants while making their ascent.

A general and valuable means of defence was found
also in the hady, or deep ditch, formed around the villages.
These exist at the present day ; but scarcely any pains were
taken by Radama to keep them in repair, partly on account
of the tranquillity of Imerina during his reign, and partly
on account of the new modes of warfare rendering them oi
less use as a means of defence. They might keep at
some distance thos assailants, who were only armed with
sticks and spears, but they afford no defence against the
ball from the cannon or the musket.

i. 2 a

354 HISTORY OF MADAGASCAR.

In the low countries the people have generally sought
safety in time of war by flight into their woods, and hence
scarcely any hady or moat is found, except in the interior
of the island, where there are no forests sufficiently near to
be places of refuge in times of war.

Drury gives an account of the residence of a prince, or
chieftain of a district, as defended by a sort of natural
fortification, which rendered it inaccessible, except to the
approach of a very limited number at once. It was situated
in a wood, with trees all around it, which seemed to have
been planted there when very young, for their growth
was regular and tall, and so close together that a small
dog could not pass between them. They were likewise
armed with large strong thorns, so as to render it impossible
to break through or climb over them. There were but two
passages, or gates, so narrow as to admit only two men
abreast. One of these was to the northward, the other to
the south, and the whole was about a mile in circum-
ference.

In going out to war, the people were accustomed to go
en masse, appointing a place of general rendezvous. No-
thing like regular order prevailed in the attack. Every one
carried the best weapon with which he could furnish him-
self ; took his slave or slaves to carry his provisions ; did
the best he could during the conflict; secured as much
booty as fell within his grasp, or escaped as fast as he could
if his party seemed likely to be defeated.

In the year 1816, during the time Sir Robert Farquhar
was governor of Mauritius, a few disciplined troops
were sent up to Tananarivo, with a view of exhibiting to
Radama a specimen of European discipline, and recom-
mending it to his adoption as one of the best means of
giving him a decided superiority over all the other chieftains

HISTORY OF MADAGASCAR.

355

of the island. The suggestion approved itself to the mind
of Radama. He gladly seized the opportunity of securing
the services of Mr Brady, one of the party, by whom his
own soldiers might be instructed ; he afterwards constituted
him one of his principal officers, and felt himself greatly
indebted to Mr. Brady for the faithful and unremitting ser-
vices which he rendered.

One regiment only was formed at first, and that con-
sisting entirely of the class of the voromahery. Within a
few years afterwards, circumstances led to the formation
of an army on a far more extensive scale. The immensely
superior power of the disciplined few over the undisciplined
multitude, convinced Radama that with an augmented
number of regularly instructed troops he should be invin-
cible. They were too few at first to effect his object; but
they were enough to produce the conviction that the old
mode of war must be exchanged for the new — order taking
place of confusion, spears yielding to muskets, sticks to
swords, and stones to powder and ball.

The years 1820 and 1821 had proved alarmingly de-
structive to the Hovas. Incredible numbers had perished
in a war against the Sakalavas of Menabe. The waste of
human life, for want of better discipline and more specific
arrangements, together wTith the obvious and urgent neces-
sity of keeping more people at home to cultivate the soil,
may be regarded as the two principal circumstances which
gave rise to the actual formation of the army of Radama.
And as it was found that the Sakalavas were tolerably well
skilled in the use of the musket, it was seen to be the more
necessary to train a body of troops, who might be better able
to compete with them, than rude warriors venturing with
only spears and shields into the field of terror, devastation,
and carnage.

2 a 2

356

HISTORY OF MADAGASCAR.

As a proof of the contaminating influence of the martial
feeling that was thus created, a youthful regiment was
formed, consisting of about one hundred, who learned the
military exercises, using bamboos for guns, under the
command of Rakotobe, son of Rataffe. Most of these
were afterwards taken into the army; but their young
leader was cut off a few days after the death of
Radama.

This martial feeling appears also to have been cherished
and extended, not only by the eloquence of the rulers, but
by the songs of the women, who are thus described as cele-
brating one of their sovereign's warlike expeditions. On
the day when Radama was supposed to be entering the
territory of the Sakalavas, all the females at and near the
capital, of every rank and class, arose by daylight, and
having formed themselves into small parties, each under a
leader, commenced the " mirary," singing war-songs, in the
form of prayers and benedictions, for the safety and success
of the king and the army, accompanied with imprecations
upon the enemy. They stood with their faces turned
towards the west, the direction of the Sakalava country,
holding rods in their hands, and brandishing them like
spears, with warlike motions, calculated to excite them to
enthusiasm. This practice was continued every morning
and evening, until the war terminated. It sometimes
lasted through the principal part of the day. The expres-
sions consisted chiefly of the praises of the sovereign, such
as " God is gone to the west — Radama is a mighty bull" —
closing with " Dead is the country to the west — dead is it,"
the last sentence forming a sort of chorus.

This practice of singing was continued until the year
1824, when the king gave directions, that instead of these
warlike exhibitions, the women should go home and attend

HISTORY OF MADAGASCAR.

357

to their work, and that he should be able to succeed in his
wars without their songs.

The revenues of the king of Madagascar are not
great, when compared with the amount of property
actually contained in the island. The property of the
sovereign consists chiefly of slaves and cattle, both which
are numerous. These are, however, considered as the pro-
perty of the government, and belonging to the office, not
the person, of the monarch ; they consequently descend to
his successor. His nominal property as sovereign includes
the whole island, since all the land, with the services of the
inhabitants, are at his command. The actual revenues
arise from several sources, all of them extremely limited,
and far below what would be absolutely requisite, if the
government were required to pay for the services rendered
to it. Instead of this, the government claims the services of
the subjects for the army, and various other public duties,
and accepts of service also in lieu of payments either in '
money or produce; by this commutation, rendering the
direct taxes of money or produce less necessary than under
a better system.

Amongst the sources of the revenue may be enumerated
booty, hasina, taxes, duties and customs, fines and con-
fiscations.

By booty, is, of course, understood a share of the spoil
taken in war, slaves, cattle, &c. One-third of the whole
amount of cattle is allotted to the sovereign, and four
dollars on every slave taken captive. The rest is distri-
buted among the officers of the army; and as the sovereign
provides arms and ammunition for the troops, his claim to
a larger share of the booty obtained is considered fair and
equitable. Of the cattle, the sovereign is in the habit of
distributing considerable numbers gratuitously at different

358

HISTORY OF MADAGASCAR.

times, and of selling others to the traders on the coast
for exportation.

Hasina, or donations, are presented as acknowledgments
of the sovereignty of the monarch, and are made on
innumerable occasions. Strangers from all parts of the
country, and all foreigners arriving at the capital, present
the hasina to the sovereign. In all great kabarys, the hasina
is presented by the several districts and different parties in
the kingdom, by the judges, the army, the police, heads of
clans and villages, and by the scholars and others in their
respectively associated capacity. On the king's returning
home from a distant excursion, after a war, in passing near
a village, or on any event of public importance, as at the
fandroana, circumcision, &c. ; the hasina is also presented
to the sovereign. The sums given on these occasions are
usually small, but the aggregate forms a large amount.

A tenth of all the produce of the country belongs to the
sovereign, and is called fahafolo, or a tenth. An annual
poll-tax also exists, though not universally enforced,
amounting to one sikajy for each slave possessed by a free
subject. Of goods introduced to the capital, and sold in
any way except in the public markets, one-fifth of the
profits is claimed by the sovereign ; and on every child born
to a slave, one-fifth of its value must be paid by the owner
into the king's exchequer. There exists also an isantrano,
or tax, of one sikajy on each house. Free-will offerings of
the first-fruits of the harvest are also made to the sovereign.
A certain proportion of rice must also be paid in by the
bourgeois for the service of the army. An isampangady
(i.e. each spade) is an amount paid from the yearly pro-
duce as a kind of rental. On the estates called Menakely,
that is, certain portions of land or villages assigned by the
sovereign to members of the royal family, to the judges,

HISTORY OF MADAGASCAR.

359

and others, the isampangady is paid to the holders of the
estate. In all other cases it goes to the sovereign.

Duties and customs are imposed on vessels entering the
harbours or ports of the island, and on all articles exported
and imported. Some attempts have been made by foreign
traders to farm these, by paying an annual amount for their
own vessels to pass free from all specific duties, and re-
quiring an augmented amount to be laid on other vessels
and the commerce of other traders, but the plan does not
appear to have succeeded.

A portion of all fines imposed by the judges becomes
the property of the king. Of persons sold into slavery for
the payment of debts, one-third of the amount of the pur-
chase is paid to the king. The property of all who die in
consequence of drinking the tangena is confiscated, and a
portion of this also falls by right to the king. The pro-
perty of persons convicted of defrauding the sovereign, of
high treason, or rebellion, is confiscated, and appropriated
in the same manner. The king also claims the property
of those who die intestate, whose wishes have not been ex-
pressed in the presence of competent witnesses, or who die
without personal or adopted heirs.

The veneration of the Malagasy for the customs derived
from tradition, or any accounts of their ancestors, is one of
the most striking features of their national character. This
feeling influences both their public and private habits ; and
upon no individual is it more imperative than upon their
monarch, who, absolute as he is in other respects, wants
either the will or the power to break through the long-
established regulations of a superstitious people.

The king of Madagascar, in addition to his other dig-
nities and responsibilities, is high-priest of the realm. At
the commencement of the new year, when a bullock is

360

HISTORY OF MADAGASCAR.

sacrificed for the good of the kingdom, opposite the tomb
at Ambohimanga, the king stands over the sacrifice to offer
up the prayers and thanksgivings, while his attendants are
employed in the slaughter of the animal. Taking into his
hands the sampy (idols), Manjakatsiroa, and Fantaka, he
stands on a platform, sometimes in a full kabary of his
people ; and while he prays, and inquires of the idols, he
faces the east. The same ceremony is performed opposite
the tomb of Andriamasinavalona, before he goes out into
the kabary, and on his return home.

Within the court-yard of the palace, and situated between
the two houses appropriated to the national feasts and
ceremonies, is a sacred stone, upon which no foot less sacred
than the sovereign's is ever permitted to stand. Upon this
stone, sacrifices are offered; and here also, on all public
occasions, the king alights from his horse or his palanquin,
before he steps upon the ground. This object of venera-
tion is not peculiar to the palace. In every village where
an idol is kept there is a sacred stone, situated near the
court-house.

The most important and popular festival celebrated in
Madagascar, is that of the new year, in which the sovereign
acts a conspicuous part. The Malagasy year commences
with a national feast or lustration, called " mandro," to
bathe, or " fandroana," bathing. It receives this designa-
tion, because bathing constitutes one principal part of the
ceremony ; but the whole is not always observed with equal
formality. In the early part of Radama's reign, he adhered
far more strictly to the ancient national observances than
during the last two or three years. The following de-
scription of the feast is taken from observations made
in 1821.

It is elsewhere remarked, that the Malagasy year consists

HISTORY OF MADAGASCAR.

361

of twelve months, and an additional day to each month
which is supposed to precede the first day of the new moon.
The ceremonies commence on the day after the termination
of the last month in the year, and are continued through a
great part of the night and of the next or new year's day.
The design of the feast appears to be simply the celebra-
tion of the new year.

For about a week previous to the commencement of the
general ceremonies, the sovereign and royal family abstain
from all animal food. On the day before the Fandroana,
many of the principal people crowd towards the palace-
yard with presents for the king as voluntary donations, and
as expressions of joy in the anticipation of the new year.
These presents consist of fuel, mats, silver, charms, &c.
The hasina is always paid in money.

About sunset, on the eve of the new year, the sovereign,
who presides as priest during all the ceremonies, having
entered the royal house, called Mahitsy, there sacrifices
a cock, intimating that the blood of this animal is the last
shed in the year, and that with it thanksgivings are offered
for the past twelve months, and blessings supplicated for
the next. From this place, decorated with a splendid scarlet
robe, and accompanied by his guard, the king proceeds to
the lapa, or house called Besakana. At this time the whole
country is illuminated. Every village, eve/y hut, has its
torch or bonfire, which may be seen from the capital to
the distance of thirty miles or upwards.

The king having entered Besakana, and taken his seat,
the several members of the royal family take theirs also,
according to precedence. He then retires to the north-
east part of the house, which is partitioned off for the
occasion, where he bathes, exclaiming, with laughter
and vivacity, that the water is cold. On coming out of

362

HISTORY OF MADAGASCAR.

the bath, he repeats, Samba, samba, no tratra hariva taona J
— " Happy, happy, we have reached the eve of the year."
All present then exclaim, Trarantitra ! — " Reach a good
old age !" At this moment the cannons are fired, and
the king, having brought with him from the bath a horn
filled with water considered sacred, pours a little into his
hand, and sprinkles all present within reach, after which
he resumes his seat, all continuing to repeat Trarantitra.
He then receives the hasina from members of his family?
and from any foreigners who may be present.

During this part of the ceremony, three culinary vessels
are brought in, and placed upon a fire arranged and
attended by a person appointed to that office. They con-
tain rice and beef; the latter being the portion kept
specially from the fandroana of the last year. Some rice
and honey are then placed on silver dishes, a portion of
the beef on the rice, and the whole is then handed round,
that each individual may take a small quantity. In taking it,
every one repeats the word samba, "happy, " or "blessed," as
before, placing also a little rice and honey upon his head,
and repeating nearly the same words, Samba, samba Andria-
manitra Andriananahary — "Blessed, blessed be the lord
god." This custom is called tatao, and signifies perfect
concord amongst the parties concerned.

The assembly, after this, breaks up, and the court-yard
is deserted by the dense crowd. All then bathe; every
parent acting the part of priest for his own household, and
performing on a small scale what had just been completed
by the king. Weeping for their friends and relations who
may have died during the past year, then follows ; and the
whole country becomes a Ramah, where lamentations and
mourning are heard in every house. Heads of families
recount also to their households the deeds of former days —

HISTORY OF MADAGASCAR.

363

the origin and honours, the exploits and fame, of their an-
cestors— and thus, by tradition, perpetuate the memory
of men and actions which must otherwise pass into
oblivion.

The king has one particular bullock for himself and his
family, which is killed soon after sunset, just when the old
year has expired. The people, however, are not allowed
to kill theirs until the following morning. It is a custom
strictly adhered to, that the bullocks killed on this occasion
should all be good ones ; that of the king's, particularly,
must be free from all blemish, and of the most perfect sym-
metry. If it is lame, has any sore, has the end of the tail
cut off, has one of its horns turned up and the other down,
or if it has a spot on one side without having a similar
one on the other, it is deemed wholly unfit for the purpose ;
for in the view of the natives, this bullock is the represen-
tative of all the others, and, before it is killed, is presented
or dedicated to god by a prayer which the king offers on
the occasion. The person who kills this bullock must also
be properly qualified. He must be without any spot or
blemish on his body, and both his parents must be living,
otherwise he cannot be allowed to make the sacrifice, as it
were, in the presence of the deity.

Towards the close of the day previous to the festival,
multitudes may have been seen washing their clothes and
mats at every pond, or brook, or spring in the neighbour-
hood; and during the evening, the people bathe them-
selves and one another. Well would it be, if such a
practice prevailed once every week, instead of only once
in the year.

About this time several of the king's own bullocks are
driven into the court-yard, to be subsequently killed and
distributed as jaka, or annual presents, among his atten-

364

HISTORY OF MADAGASCAR.

dants. Next morning, by break of day, a great number of
cattle belonging to the people are driven into the court-
yard. The king makes his appearance at the sacred stone ;
a coarse block, about twelve or eighteen inches square,
planted in the ground, near Besakana. A speckled heifer,
previously selected as fit to be offered in sacrifice, is then
killed near the stone, and before being perfectly dead,
a small piece is cut out of the rump, which the king
receives, and with it touches his forehead, the tip of his
tongue, and right knee, generally saying, " I have tasted of
the blessings of the year. May we continue to enjoy them,
and taste of the same at the expiration of this." Part of
this sacrifice is then put aside, and kept for the next annual
festival; which the Malagasy have a method of preserving
perfectly sweet and palatable, although no salt is permitted
to be used in keeping it. The animal being next cut up,
small fires are kindled before the royal tombs in the court-
yard, and small pieces of this sacred beef are fixed on pieces
of wood, and put into the fire by the sovereign himself, as a
sort of burnt- offering to his departed ancestors.

After this, the king enters the palace, where he changes
his apparel, and, again coming out, approaches the tomb of
Andriamasinavalona, holding two rods in his hand. He
supplicates that chieftain of former times as having ''gone
to god, and seeing him, and talking with him to intercede
with god in his behalf, and to prosper his kingdom, to
grant him success in arms, to extend his dominion, and to
confer happiness on him and his subjects." He then leaves
the capital, and visits Ambohimanga, accompanied by a few
attendants. At the tomb of his father he performs similar
ceremonies, and supplicates similar favours. This visit is
sometimes omitted, but not when there is a prospect of any
important military expedition being undertaken.

HISTORY OF MADAGASCAR.

365

The cattle having now been driven by their respective
owners or their servants out of the court-yard, where it is
supposed they received some benefit from the king's sacri-
fices, prayers, and benedictions, the whole town and country
become one vast slaughter-house. Hundreds of animals
may be seen driven about through every avenue of the
town, with ropes thrown around their horns and entangling
their feet, while all hands are employed in the revolting but
universal occupation of maiming, hacking, killing, dragging,
and dividing. From ten to fifteen thousand bullocks are
usually killed on this occasion. Some wealthy families kill ten
or twelve; those of the middling classes, three ; and amongst
the poor, two, three, or four families unite their means, and
purchase one for division among themselves. All make an
effort at this festival, though they should impoverish their
resources for the whole of the coming year. Those who
kill the fattest bullocks attain the greatest honours. Some
are fed up for the occasion, and cost from seven to seven-
teen dollars, and in a few instances they are actually kept
in the fahitras, and fattened there during a space of three or
four years. Of all that are killed in the town, the allotted
portion, the rump, is presented to the sovereign ; and in the
country, the same portion is presented to the chiefs and
nobles.

It is usual for the sovereign to distribute a large number
of cattle himself, especially if about commencing an expe-
dition. In 1821 the number given by Radama was not
less than two thousand. By a general edict the people are
forbidden to kill any bullocks for a few days previous to
the feast, and for a week or ten days afterwards. During
the last years of the king's reign, orders were issued that a
smaller number of cattle should be killed lest the country
should be too much impoverished.

366

HISTORY OF MADAGASCAR.

In the course of the afternoon of the great feast-day, the
beef is cut up into small pieces and cooked. It is then
placed on rice, and handed round in each family to any
friends and acquaintance who may be present. To enter
a house on such an occasion without being invited, would
be deemed an intrusion ; though, having entered, the guest
would be invited to partake of the food. This is called
eating the jaka. It is usual to give mutual invitations, and
to send presents amongst friends from one to another, and
in some cases the whole of a bullock is distributed in this
manner. Those who have no beef to give, endeavour to
send a small piece of cut money as a jaka, or new year's
gift, to their friends.

The whole of the first month of the year is called
Volompadina, or sacred month, and is not unfrequently
occupied by an interchange of visits, to partake of each
family's jaka. Friends often travel a very considerable
distance on such occasions, to prove their attachment and
respect. Radama was in the habit of inviting his family
and nobles to eat the jaka with him, and in return he went
and partook of theirs. The act of eating the jaka with
any one is by the Malagasy considered as a pledge of
amity — a sacred test and bond of mutual friendship and
concord.

Amongst the most important customs and ceremonies of
the Malagasy, connected with the government of the country,
is that of taking the oath of allegiance, which is adminis-
tered to the principal captives taken in war, on being
restored to their freedom, with permission to return home,
and to persons suspected of disaffection towards the govern-
ment, or who have risen in rebellion, or excited others to
rebel, and yet have subsequently promised to submit and
remain faithful. Extermination or slavery is the usual

HISTORY OF MADAGASCAR.

367

punishment of rebellion ; but in some cases, during the
reign of Radama, a show of humanity was deemed a prefer-
able line of policy, the consequence is the exercise of a
real humanity towards the objects of it.

The oath of allegiance is two-fold. It may be considered
either as two distinct oaths, or as separate parts of one
ceremony. The names by which the two ceremonies are
distinguished, are mively rano and milefon omby, — " to
strike the water," and " to spear the calf."

In the mively rano, the judges, and sometimes a party of
military officers, accompany the persons to be sworn to the
place appropriated to this purpose at the capital. This,
however, is no splendid mansion, but simply a shallow
stream, gurgling down the hill on the west side of Tana-
narive, where an artificial pond is formed for the purpose,
called Ranoritra — "water soon to be dried up." Around
this the parties stand, holding in their hands branches of
the Ambiaty, and a spear procured for the occasion.

The farantsa, civil police, and their assistants, bring to
the appointed place the following articles — the dung of
a bullock, the efflorescence of a particular kind of grass, a
ball, light rice or chaff, the wadding of a musket, branches
of the Ambiaty, a long grass, a water flower, a spear, and a
musket loaded with one shot All, except the last two,
are thrown into the water, as symbols of the worthless
condition to which perjurers will be reduced, or of the
means by which they will be destroyed.

A senior judge usually administers the oath, and gene-
rally addresses the party in the following words : " If any of
you acknowledge, or shall assist in making, any other king

than , (here the name of the reigning sovereign

is specified,) who alone is sacred to be the monarch, and
who alone is appointed to be the monarch even to the

368

HISTORY OF MADAGASCAR.

last generation ; — if any of you serve any other than him
who is thus consecrated and appointed, let him not see the
light, nor find place any more for the sole of his foot, and
let universal nature bear testimony against him." The
speaker then apostrophises east and west, north and south,
all that is hallowed in earth and heaven, and the line of the
twelve monarchs, as witnesses of the solemn transaction ;
and then again turning to, and addressing the party to be
sworn, he adds, " If any should rebel, let him be accursed,
whether all has been named or not, expressly mentioned or
not : whoever rebels, let him be accursed ! If any of you
retract from, or break this oath, lord god destroy him !"

The people express their solemn assent by striking the
water with the boughs in their hands, the spear also being
struck into the pool, and the musket being fired over it.
Thus the ceremony terminates, securing fidelity just so long
as the parties find it most convenient and advantageous to
themselves to observe it.

In the milefon-omby, or spearing the young bullock, the
ceremony corresponds in part with that already described.
The anathemas ifi the oath are similar, the witnesses
appealed to the same, and in some particulars the mode
of swearing is the same. It is, however, not only used in
swearing allegiance to the sovereign by persons suspected
of disaffection, but by the different ranks and parties of
the kingdom — the judges, the army, the police, heads of
districts, &c, on the accession of a new sovereign, or on
the announcement of a successor to the reigning king.

The young bullock used on this occasion, is led to the
spot where the oath is to be administered, and there killed
and dismembered in the same manner as the lamb in the
ceremony of the Tangena, the head and tail being cut off,
and reversed in their position at each end of the animal,

HISTORY OF MADAGASCAR.

369

the hind-feet placed where the fore-feet were, and the fore-
feet put in the place of the hind, the carcase cut open, and
a spear thrust into the bowels.

A number of the heads or chiefs of the parties to be
sworn, then take hold of the spear, so many as can con-
veniently grasp it, and then standing around the animal,
thus barbarously mangled, listen while the senior judge
pronounces the oath, which includes many terrible curses
on all who may perjure themselves. He then sum-
mons, as witnesses, heaven and earth, the four cardinal
points, the deceased kings, the idols, and the vazimba, the
most ancient villages of Imerina, god, and all that is con-
sidered sacred ; and after a long recapitulation of these,
and a tedious multiplication of words, to render the cere-
mony more imposing, the speaker adds, " If any of you
ever retract, if any of you ever refuse allegiance to the
sovereign appointed to reign, whether all has been spe-
cifically named or not, whether present or absent, great
or small, old or young, male or female, newly brought to
life or still unborn, whether holding the spear or not
holding it, behold this glittering spear ! behold this young
bullock ! and let the perjurer be as this bullock ; let him
be speared of god ; let him not be favoured in any thing,
but let him be wholly accursed !"

Those who have taken hold of the spear, then express
their assent to the oath, by thrusting the spear repeatedly
and violently into the body of the mangled animal, and
thus closing the ceremony.

On the death of Radama, allegiance was sworn to the
present queen by both these ceremonies, and by the addi-
tion of drinking a small quantity of muddy water, which
it was supposed would operate upon them as a curse in
case of treachery or treason. Those who dared to refuse

i. 2 b

370

HISTORY OF MADAGASCAR.

the oath, were instantly seized, and carried off to be
put to death, and the first who opposed her was cut to
pieces on the spot ; while of those who recognised her,
each drank of the water mixed with some earth, taken
from the tomb of the father of Radama. This was pre-
pared in a large canoe to the west of the court-yard.
None but the heads of districts were sworn by the
spearing of the calf; but the drinking of the muddy water
was considered sufficient for the common people.

There is no written code of laws in Madagascar ; and
such a code would be of comparatively little use, since not
a single judge can either read or write.* Great regard,
however, is paid to traditions, customs, and opinions,
from which few are willing to deviate without at least the
appearance of strong reason.

When events arise requiring the formation of a new
law, or the revival of an old one which has become obso-
lete, the sovereign announces his intention to the judges
and officers, and they convey the intelligence to the people
generally at the public markets. Radama occasionally
adopted the mode of affixing to the outer gate of his palace
a written notification of a new law.

Capital crimes in Madagascar are murder, high treason,
sorcery, arson, sacrilege, (robbing tombs,) manufacturing
base coin, or acting deceitfully in the king's name, selling
slaves out of the island, and stealing money from the per-
son. To these may be added the two military offences,
desertion of a military post, and retreating in battle after
having commenced the attack.

* In 1832, a native, called Ramaka, who was converted to Christianity
and baptized, became a judge, by the order of succession, to his father. He
had been a teacher in the Mission schools, and was qualified to take notes
of the evidence in writing. He died about two years afterwards.

HISTORY OF MADAGASCAR.

371

The modes of inflicting capital punishments are numer-
ous— some of them such as exist only in the most bar-
barous states of society. The most honourable execution
is that in which a criminal is speared or beheaded in his
own house, without being exposed to the gaze of the mul-
titude. The mother of Radama, Prince Ratafy, and others,
were put to death in this manner on the accession of the
present queen. Persons of the rank of nobles, however,
are usually put to death by suffocation. Cattle -folds,
where the mire is soft and deep, and, in some cases, soft
marshy ground, have been frequently selected for this ter-
rible purpose. In some instances this unenviable destruc-
tion has not been observed, and nobles have suffered death
by spearing, the common mode of execution inflicted upon
ordinary criminals.

In the punishment of death by spearing, the hands of
the criminal are usually tied. He is then thrown on the
ground, and a spear is driven through his loins. Behead-
ing is another mode of capital punishment. Sometimes
the criminal is first put to death by spearing, and his head
afterwards dissevered from the body, in order to be affixed
to a pole, and exposed to view in some public situation,
to terrify the people. The heads of banditti, or other
robbers, are sometimes fixed on poles in the villages they
have attacked and plundered.

It is the custom in some of the provinces, particularly
those on the southern coast, to put the murderer to death
in the same manner as he committed the murder, whether
by spearing, shooting, or any other means.

In a few cases of great enormity, a sort of crucifixion
has been resorted to, and, in addition to this, burning or
roasting at a slow fire kept at some distance from the
sufferer, has completed the horrors of this miserable death.

2 b2

372

HISTORY OF MADAGASCAR.

It is not fully known by what means the idea of crucifixion
as a mode of punishment, was adopted by the Malagasy.
It is possible that it may have been derived from the
Arabs, or from Scripture history. In the year 1825, a
man was condemned to crucifixion who had murdered a
female for the sake of stealing her child. He carried the
child for sale to the public market, where the infant was
recognized, and the murderer detected. He bore his pun-
ishment in the most hardened manner, avenging himself,
by all the violence he was capable of exercising, upon those
who dragged him to the place of execution. Not a single
groan escaped him during the period he was nailed to the
wood, nor while the cross was fixed upright in the earth.
The wooden frame used in the place of a cross, resembles
a gallows. To this the malefactor is nailed while it
remains flat upon the earth. After which, it is lifted up
with its miserable burden, and fixed in two holes made in
the ground for the purpose. Here the sufferer is kept
until he dies of cold, hunger, or agony. Some criminals,
after being nailed to the frame, have remained for hours
for the gaze of the multitude. A fire has oftentimes been
placed to windward of them, by which they and the cross
have been consumed together.

The first criminal who suffered death by crucifixion was
a man convicted of having aided in the escape of the queen
to her friends, in 1825. Another suffered the same punish-
ment shortly afterwards, for having stolen, or obtained
money by false pretences in the name of the king. And
three others were in the following year crucified and burnt,
for having wilfully set fire to several houses in the capital,
and for having, on conviction, avowed their intention of
destroying several others in the same manner.

Another method of execution is by tying the malefactor

HISTORY OF MADAGASCAR.

373

with moist thongs to a post, then rubbing his body with
tallow or grease, placing fagots around him, and burning
him to ashes. When more than one are to be burnt, irons
are fixed upon their hands and feet, and they are laid side
by side upon elevated ground, in order that the breeze may
facilitate the burning of the fagots by which they are
surrounded.

Flogging to death, though rarely practised, is a punish-
ment not unknown. In 1821, three females suffered this
terrible fate for having attempted to escape after being
made prisoners in war.

Throwing down a steep rock is the usual punishment for
making the ody mahery, or practising sorcery.

Burning is the military punishment for desertion or
cowardice ; and it first became a national law in the fol-
lowing manner. After several thousands of Radama's
soldiers had been disciplined to form a regular army, the
king convened them on a plain, and asked their opinion as
to what punishment should be inflicted upon cowards or
runaways in battle. In the warmth of their military fer-
vour, some of the principal proposed burning alive. The
proposition was seconded, and supported without a dis-
sentient voice; and the king also adding his sanction, it
became a law in the army. Radama used afterwards to
say to his soldiers, " It is not myself that punishes you, but
your own law." The king, however, was still at liberty to
interfere in behalf of the criminal, and might order him,
after having been tried and condemned by the court mar-
tial, to be shot before he was burned, though the instances
are rare in which this mark of royal clemency has been
shown. Other crimes in the army are punished by flogging,
loading with irons, placing in confinement, or making the
culprit run up a hill for a length of time, holding a musket

374 HISTORY OF MADAGASCAR.

upright in his hand. Degradation to a lower office or rank
is also a frequent punishment.

Some years ago an officer, who was high in authority
amongst the Malagasy, lost public favour, and became so
much disliked by his fellow-officers and others, that he was
justly apprehensive of a violent death at their hands.
Under these fears, he applied to a diviner to know by what
means he should die. The diviner told him he was doomed
to a bloody death, upon which the officer inquired whether
there was anything that would avert this doom. The
diviner still persisted in the same prediction, but advised
him to perform the following rite : — -To mount upon the
back of a bullock, and carry upon his head a small vessel
full of blood ; while thus mounted, to spill the blood upon
the bullock's head, and then to send it away into the
wilderness, or a distant and uninhabited place, whence
it might never return. The officer faithfully performed
the rite, but in a short time was put to death in his own
house by order of the queen, while his enemies usurped
his place.

Amongst the milder punishments may be enumerated
flogging, more or less severely; putting in chains, of two
descriptions — long ones, reaching from the neck to the
ankles; and short ones, placed on the hands and feet
only. Criminals in chains are compelled to hard labour,
many of them being employed in the repair of the public
roads ; and they may frequently be seen assisting themselves
in carrying the chain affixed to their bodies with one hand,
while with the other they hold a block of stone which is
borne upon their heads.

Death was formerly inflicted for almost every offence.
But the late Mr. Hastie humanely suggested other punish-
ments instead of death. His recommendation has had the

HISTORY OF MADAGASCAR.

375

effect of greatly diminishing capital punishments, without
augmenting crime.

To be reduced to slavery, is another punishment, some-
times involving a whole family, and with it the confiscation
of their property. Pecuniary fines are common, particularly
for the trespass of cattle on other ground than that of the
owners, and for stealing articles of small value.

Those who borrow money without being able to refund
it, or those who incur debts which they are unable to pay,
are taken into the public market to be sold for payment of
what they owe. A man, his wife, and children, are thus
frequently sold together, unless some friend should come
forward and become his surety, or pay his debts. Thousands
of free people have been reduced to slavery by this means ;
and this is a law which is generally carried into effect
without any mitigation of punishment. If a debtor has
property that is seized to pay his debts, and if that be
insufficient, he is sold in the market ; and if the produce of
his sale should still be insufficient to satisfy his creditors,
his family must share the same fate. A man who has
become surety for another is exposed to similar treatment,
if unable to meet the claims substantiated against the per-
son for whom he has become surety.

The punishment of maiming, cutting off" hands and feet,
has been resorted to in some instances, but is not frequent.
Death has generally resulted from such amputations, either
by haemorrhage or mortification.

Nearly all punishments are inflicted publicly, and it is
seldom that any delay is allowed after the conviction of the
offender. The judges have power to inflict punishments
not capital, but death is exclusively in the hands of the
sovereign.

When the king has ordered any one for execution, the

376

HISTORY OF MADAGASCAR.

criminal is delivered into the hands of the populace,
who, if he be guilty of any crime generally abhorred, is
kicked and pelted with stones and eggs, until he can
scarcely be said to be alive on arriving at the place of final
execution: in these barbarities the children in Mada-
gascar find great amusement and pleasure.

A custom prevails amongst the Malagasy, that if a
criminal can obtain sight of the sovereign, he is pardoned,
whether before or after conviction; or if the sovereign
should accept a hasina sent to him by the accused. Even
criminals at work on the high road, if they can catch sight
of the monarch as he passes by, may claim their pardon.
Hence, by a sort of anomaly in this singular law, they are
ordered to withdraw from the road when the sovereign is
known to be coming by.

Exemption from punishment was also claimed by all who
had rendered any particular service to the sovereign or the
state ; and not by such individuals merely, but by their
descendants, and by other branches of the family, upon the
same plea. During the latter part of the reign of Radama,
many unsuccessful endeavours were made by him to abolish
the long-continued abuses by which the ends of justice were
thus defeated. The following anecdote affords an example
of the ingenuity and tact with which he effected this desir-
able purpose. The favourite servant of a nobleman having
committed a theft, engaged his master to intercede for him
with the king, and claim the privilege of former service to
the state. Radama remonstrated, and, while surrounded
by his ministers, kept the nobleman in suspense so long as
to give time for his house to be robbed by people whom
the king had sent for that purpose ; after which Radama
desired him to go home, and consider further the peti-
tion he had preferred. The chief finding his house robbed,

HISTORY OF MADAGASCAR,

377

hastened back to the king, and demanded the apprehension
and punishment of the thieves. " The criminal," said
Radama, " has already presented himself ; and pleading
former services, I have forgiven him." The nobleman was
vehement in his expressions of dissatisfaction ; but Radama,
showing the absurdity and injustice of the custom, ex-
plained the stratagem, and proclaimed that the custom was
abolished, and that henceforward he would reward those
whose services were deserving of it.

In cases where there is no law, custom, or precedent, the
word of the sovereign is sufficient. He can issue orders and
proclamations, commute or mitigate punishments accord-
ing to his own will, without being answerable to any one ;
for as the popular idea is strenuously maintained, that
the king can do no wrong, few are disposed to dispute
his authority; and if it should be disputed, woe to the
daring offender ! It was not uncommon for Radama to
give orders for secret executions. He had his confidential
servants about him, and his spies in every town. He him-
self, disguised for the purpose, was accustomed to go about
amongst his people in the character of a spy. These pro-
ceedings, however, were severely condemned by Mr. Hastie,
whose opinion had great weight with the king.

With regard to foreigners, traders are allowed to reside
on the coast for any period of time ; but are held amenable
for offences to the native government. At the capital,
where the circumstances of foreigners were different, a regu-
lation was made by Radama, that Europeans guilty of any
infraction of his laws should be sent out of the country.

A few cases have occurred during the last twenty years,
in which the laws of the country have been put in force
against foreigners. In 1821, an artisan from Port Louis,
not in connexion with the Missionary Society, was sen-

378

HISTORY OF MADAGASCAR.

tenced to imprisonment, and placed in heavy irons. Under
this sentence he remained three years in confinement.

In 1822, a trader from Mauritius was convicted of
murder. He had deliberately tied up a Creole to a stake,
and shot him on suspicion of his having robbed him. The
case was referred to the civil authorities of Mauritius, and
Radama was informed in reply, that they had decided that
the British government could not take cognizance of crimes
committed out of the jurisdiction of Great Britain. The
murderer was banished to about a hundred miles west of the
capital, and in the course of a year afterwards was put to
death.

In the spring of 1828, another person from Mauritius
was convicted of selling spirituous liquors to the natives,
c ontrary to the law of the land. She was put in irons, and
detained in custody some time, but afterwards, on paying a
fine, was permitted to remove to the coast.

Foreigners cannot become landholders in Madagascar,
as, by a proclamation of Radama in 1825, the natives are
strictly forbidden to sell them any land ; and but few excep-
tions to this rule have occurred. This policy appears to
have arisen out of some representations made to the king
respecting the British power in the East, resulting from
the acquisition of land, which, in the first instance, was
transferred in very inconsiderable portions.

The greatest national council in Madagascar is an assem-
bly of the people of the capital, and the heads of the pro-
vinces, districts, towns, villages, &c. These are held in
Andohalo : Radama usually presided in person, taking his
place on a platform on an elevated spot situated near the
centre. Here he always appeared on his return from war ;
and in the pretended consultations held with his people
upon increasing the army, or other public measures,

HISTORY OF MADAGASCAR.

379

v/hen from his opinion there was no voice bold enough to
dissent.

The next council to this was the assembly of the heads
of provinces, districts, and towns only, when the judges and
military officers were deputed as the king's commissioners,
to make known his will; and the judges carried back to
the king the opinion of the assembly, again receiving orders
from the king, which they were to make known to those
over whom each presided. After the formation of a dis-
ciplined army, however, these councils of the nation became
less frequent, and are now mere matters of form.

The business of the judges at the capital is to sit in
the court-yard, in the open air, on an elevated place near
the gate, to hear and to try causes. Military officers some-
times sit with them, to hear the parties and the witnesses
examined publicly. There was, till very lately, no es-
tablished code to which appeals could be made ; each case
was considered on its own merits. If the case be clear,
the judges then deliver their opinion before the people.
If otherwise, they retire into one of the royal houses within
the court-yard, to consult and to decide on the judgment
to be pronounced. But if the case be too difficult for
their decision, they lay it before the sovereign, stating to
him fully the pleadings of the parties, with the evidence
of the witnesses ; and his decision is final, whether right
or wrong. The parties must abide by the word of the
king, and can make no further appeal. The fines and
expenses of the trial are divided amongst the king, his
wives, and the judges. If any one is condemned to be
put in irons, or to be publicly flogged, there is a division of
property ; but in cases of execution for treason, murder,
or any great crime, the property of the criminal is confis-
cated to the king, who permits the informers, witnesses,

380

HISTORY OF MADAGASCAR.

and judges to enjoy a share of it. Much, however, de-
pends upon the royal will with regard to the confiscation
or division of property, the king being able to alter, in-
crease, or mitigate the sentence according to his pleasure.

It can scarcely be said that any general laws exist ; each
chief province, or even smaller locality, has its own usages
in regard to what are considered crimes, and the nature
of the punishments to be inflicted. In awarding fines or
punishments, there is generally an endeavour to maintain,
at least, the appearance of justice or equity. The laws
and regulations established by Radama or his successor,
are not supreme in all the provinces, in many of which
the ancient usages relating to their internal government
remain in force ; though the object of the government of
the Hovas is evidently to assimilate the laws of the whole
island, that all may be governed by one code.

A singular custom prevails, in which, when an offence
has been committed and prosecution commenced, the
latter is stayed by a promise from the offending party
that he will not prosecute under similar circumstances,
should the prosecutor commit the same offence against
him.

On the final adjudication of a cause, a piece of money
is paid to the sovereign and to the judges, as a token of
acquiescence in the decision.

As the country is divided into provinces, districts, &c,
there is, belonging to each, a principal town or village, in
which stands a government-house, called Lapa, and opposite
to this house is a sacred stone, by the side of which sacrifices
are offered. In each of these towns or villages are ap-
pointed ten farantsa, or magistrates, whose office is to
govern the district, arrest transgressors, execute the king's
orders, take care that the tenth of the produce is gathered

HISTORY OF MADAGASCAR.

381

in taxes, and to decide in judgment between contending
parties. But if they are unable to adjust such differences,
the action must be brought before the judges at the
capital, and from that court there is no appeal. The
farantsa perform nearly the same duties in the country as
those at the capital, acting both as magistrates and judges.
Under them again are the Loholana, or the heads of the
villages in a district.

Causes brought before the judges are such as relate to
charges for capital offences, and litigations respecting pro-
perty, the boundaries of rice-grounds, and cases of bequest.
The parties confront each other, and every man is advo-
cate in his own cause, or he may engage his friends to
appear, and plead his cause before the judges. Evidence is
carefully examined, the witnesses being questioned in the
hearing of each other, and the decision is formed on the
testimony produced. If the evidence appear equal between
the plaintiff and the defendant, or on the part of the
accuser and the accused, recourse is usually had to trial
by ordeal, or administering the tangena to fowls or dogs,
two of which are supposed to represent the two parties
opposed to each other : and according to the operation of the
poison upon these two substitutes, the case is finally decided.

Such are the imperfect, and in some instances barbarous,
laws of Madagascar, adapted to the political exigencies of
a partially civilized people, yet at the same time partaking
of the inconsistency, superstition, and cruelty which charac-
terize the public and domestic regulations of most heathen
nations.

The laws by which the island is at present governed were
issued by the present sovereign on ascending the throne.
They are entitled " The Laws of the Kingdom, or the Com-
mands of the Sovereign, with the Fines to be imposed on

382

HISTORY OF MADAGASCAR.

the Malagasy, made at Antananarivo, 27th Alahasaty, 1 828.
In the original the enactments are regularly numbered.
The following is a translation of the chief laws : —

All rebels, or persons who violate the royal bed ; who steal from
the sovereign's house, or from the houses of any of the nobility ;
who entice or lead the people to rebel against their sovereign;
all persons guilty of murder and witchcraft, shall be punished with
death.

All persons found guilty of kidnapping, bullock-stealing, dig-
ging under the walls of a house in order to rob it, robbing in a
house, cutting off any part of a person's cloth in which money is
tied, cutting and stealing rice by night, swearing allegiance to any
besides the sovereign, giving the tangena privately in order to
decide any cause whatever without the knowledge or consent of
the sovereign, removing a landmark or boundary fixed by the
sovereign, reviving a lawsuit after it has been once finally settled
by the sovereign or judges, the hasina and the orimbato having
been accepted, such person or persons shall be lost,* with wife and
family ; but on surviving the tangena shall receive a fine of ten
bullocks and ten dollars from the accuser.

All persons found guilty of a contumacious violation of the laws,
being admonished and yet not obeying, shall be fined one hundred
dollars.

If any person accuses another of being bewitched, there being
no witness, and the accused is conquered by the tangena, whether
by drinking it himself or by giving it to the dogs, he shall be lost,
and his property confiscated; but if he survives the test, the
accuser shall pay him a fine of twenty-nine and a half dollars; no
excuse can be admitted in this case.

Any person found guilty of robbing a tomb, or using unjust
weights, or untying any part of a person's cloth in which money
is tied, or using unjust measures, or making bad money, or the
uniting together of four and upwards to bear false witness,
striking with iron, or even with wood having iron attached to it,
shall be lost, and his property confiscated ; but if he gains the
cause he shall be paid five bullocks and five dollars by the accuser.

* Redueed to a state of slavery.

HISTORY OF MADAGASCAR.

383

All persons found guilty of concealing the property of those who
die childless, or the property of those who die by the tangena, or
who consume the property of the sovereign without permission,
or receive a bribe from a thief to screen him from justice, or who
take the law into their own hands by imposing a fine on another,
or who settle the affair of a robbery without informing the sove-
reign, or who eat the rump of the ox without the permission of the
sovereign, or the nobles to whom it belongs, shall each pay a fine of
ten bullocks and ten dollars, and an additional sum of thirty
dollars to the informer; but if they gain their cause, they shall be
paid three bullocks and three dollars.

All persons guilty of stealing in the markets, for whatever they
steal (excepting kidnapping, stealing bullocks, cutting off a part
of cloth, or untying a part of a cloth in which money is tied) they
shall pay a fine of seven bullocks and seven dollars, and twenty
dollars to the informer.

If a person seizes another person or his property, and sells or
keeps his person or property for debt, without permission of die
sovereign or consent of the debtor, he shall forfeit the debt, and
pay a fine of five bullocks and five dollars.

And for all small thefts, whether of pigs, or sheep, or goats, or
poultry, or money, or rice, or sugarcane, or manioc, or sweet
potatoes, or cotton, or Indian corn, or pumkins, or vovo (nets), or
bananas, or horirikia, or lemons, or yams, or grapes, or voanjo, or
French beans, with all other small thefts whatsoever — the person
or persons (being detected by the owners of the property stolen)
shall pay a fine of seven bullocks and seven dollars ; and if in-
formed against by others, shall pay an additional sum of twenty
dollars to the informer, and be put in irons for a week ; and if they
cannot pay the fine, and their family gives them up, they shall be
sold ; but if they gain the cause, they shall be paid two bullocks
and two dollars by the accuser.

If a tsiarondahy, or a slave, be found guilty of theft, and cannot
pay the fine, he shall be sold, (but not his wife and children,) and
one third of his price shall belong to the master ; if he can pay
the fine, it shall be at the same rate as for free people.

If a slave absconds from his master, and commits theft, the
master of the said slave shall pay two and a half dollars for catch-

384

HISTORY OF MADAGASGAR.

ing him ; and if only a small theft be committed, the master shall
pay half the value of the goods stolen ; but if the value of one slave
and upwards has been consumed by the runaway slave, the owner
of the slave and the owner of the goods stolen shall have an equal
share in the runaway slave.

If the slave of a soldier runs away from his master, one-fourth of
the two and a half dollars shall be taken off ; but if the master of
the slave be dissatisfied, the two and a half dollars shall be paid.

If a slave that runs away is worth ten dollars and upwards, the
master shall pay two and a half dollars; but if he is under the
value of ten dollars, a fourth of his value shall be paid instead of
the two and a half dollars to those who apprehended him.

Any person concealing a runaway slave, shall pay one bullock
and one dollar for every month's concealment.

If a man informs against his wife, or the wife against her hus-
band, even if they are separated, or a slave informs against his
master after he has been sold to another, or even should they
employ others to inform against them, their information shall not
be admitted.

If a person borrows money and will not repay it at the time
fixed, and the owner of the money informs the sovereign of it, the
debtor shall pay one-third more in addition to the principal, if
the money has not been taken on interest; but if taken on interest,
the interest shall be equal to the principal.

If an affair at law has been made known to the proper authorities,
and a day appointed for trial of the same, and either of the parties
do not appear on that day, not being prevented by illness, the
party not appearing shall have his choice whether he will redeem
himself by paying the value of his body, or lose the cause.

Any person accusing another of guilt in the name of the sove-
reign or judges without having authority from them so to do, shall
pay a fine of two bullocks and two dollars.

Any person having five houses and upwards destroyed by fire in
the town, shall pay three bullocks and three dollars to the sove-
reign, no excuse can be admitted, and the three bullocks shall be
killed for the people in the town.

Whoever inters the corpse of one killed by the tangena with its
head to the east, such persons being seen to do so, and being in-

HISTORY OF MADAGASCAR.

385

formed against, shall pay a fine of four bullocks and four dollars ;
but if he begs pardon and confesses his guilt, he shall pay only
four dollars.

Any person guilty of stealing fuel, shall pay a fine of one bullock
and one dollar. If a large quantity of fuel is stolen, the fine is
three bullocks and three dollars.

Any person taking away a canoe without permission of the
owner, shall pay a fine of one bullock and one dollar.

Any person who sells to a slave, and the master of the slave is
not present, if even the master himself is a slave, and the pur-
chaser has not wherewith to pay, the seller shall lose his money.

If any things lost be found by the people, one-third shall go to
the sovereign and the persons who find them.

If any person buys lost property and the owner of the property
finds it, he must make the person prove where he got it, — if the
property be small that he bought, then it shall be divided between
the buyer and the owner ; if the latter declines accusing the former
as a thief, the person of whom the property was bought shall
be sought after, and if he be found, the property shall be divided.
But if much property has been bought by him, and he cannot
prove from whom he had it, the tangena shall be given.

For bullocks that trespass and destroy the people's property, the
owners shall pay one-quarter of a dollar for each bullock, for a pig
one-forty-eighth, for a sheep one-seventy-second, for ducks, &c.
one hundred and forty-fourth, and hens, &c. may be beaten to death.

And for small thefts also, if the article is eaten on the spot
where it was taken, and not carried home, the theft is not
punishable.

Any person found guilty of stealing fowls shall receive forty
stripes, and have his or her hair cut off.

And for all the above-mentioned crimes, if the persons guilty
accuse themselves, one-half of the fines shall be taken off.

All the fines arising from law suits shall be divided between the
sovereign and the parties who gain the cause.

For taking person or property by force, or theft, or beating
a person, even if the tangena is not given, the fines shall be
divided ; half shall belong to the sovereign, and the other half to
the owner of stolen goods and the informer,
i. 2 c

386

HISTORY OF MADAGASCAR.

And for other crimes, (not decided by the tangena, theft, taking
persons or property by force, beating,) if informed against by
people, and the tangena is not given, the money shall be divided
into three shares, and two-thirds shall go to the sovereign, and
one-third to the informer.

Such are the laws of the kingdom for robbery here-above.* And
these are the laws of the kingdom for youf also.

Look well to this paper — those crimes that cause the loss of wife
and children here-above, make the loss of person and property
there with you.

And all the fines shall be reduced one-half, according to the
nature of the fines, if the persons guilty accuse themselves.

And if the convicted parties put in a plea of former services, and
establish their plea of having done great good to the country, then
a third again is to be remitted from the fines.

Look well to this paper, for the fines are different above from
the fines there with you.

And for the capital crimes, as specified in article 1st, (rebellion,
violation of the royal bed, robbery in the Lapa, regicide, exciting
revolt, murder, witchcraft,) — let the persons guilty of such be
brought up to Tananarive-,

Saith Ranavalomanjaka.

* In the province of Ankova.

f The inhabitants of the remote provinces, and on the sea coast. •

HISTORY OF

MADAGASCAR.

387

CHAP. XIV.

Extensive prevalence of superstition among the .Malagasy — Their general
belief in the power of charms and frequent use of divination — Mythology
of the Malagasy — Indefinite ideas of God, of the human soul, and a future
state — Defective sense of moral responsibility — Worship of tutelary
gods — Imagined sacredness of the villages in which the idols are kept —
The idol-keepers — Bearers of the idols in public processions — Origin and
appearance of the national and household idols — Homage paid to them
by the people — Means used in rendering articles otherwise common
objects of superstitious worship — Temples — Sacred stones — Sacrifices —
Appeals to idols in the administration of oaths and the ordeals — Names
of the principal idols — Their supposed antipathies — Anecdotes illustra-
tive of the deceptive pretences of the keepers of the idols — Exposure of
their deceptions by Radama — Public exhibition of the idols — Visit of
Radama to the supposed residence of the idols — Import of the names
of the idols.

Although the natives of Madagascar have been frequently
represented as destitute of any national system of religion,
as having no popular idols, or religious observances, towards
which they evinced any strong predilection, and might there-
fore be regarded as a people favourably prepared for the
reception of Christianity, being unawed by an interested
priesthood, and unprejudiced in favour of any ancient
creed, their actual circumstances will be found to differ
widely from this flattering, but too hastily formed opinion.

The Malagasy, possessing the feelings and passions
which are common to human nature, and being subject to
the same hopes and fears, joys and sorrows, as other mem-
bers of the human family in their destitution of the light
and guidance of revelation, have endeavoured, like others

2 c *2

368

HISTORY OF MADAGASCAR.

similarly circumstanced, to find resources which might
satisfy the cravings of the mind, and allay the feverishness
of a bewildered imagination, which might arm them with
fortitude amidst the apprehensions of mysterious and unde-
fined evils, and inspire them with hope in the prospect of
some unknown and equally undefined futurity. The opera-
tion of an invisible agency, or of different agencies, they
see demonstrated in the phenomena, the order, and the
formation of the universe around them. Yet strangers to
the sublime idea of a superintending Providence, and
almost equally strangers to any rational and philosophical
explanation of daily occurring natural phenomena, they
promptly attribute every thing to the influence of charms
(ody), which their imaginations invent, possessing qualities
and virtues adequate to the production of all the varied
effects either witnessed or experienced.

Still, while a belief in the efficacy of these potent charms
seems to constitute one of the principal articles of their
creed, it does not constitute the whole. It forms an im-
portant part of the Malagasy system of belief, but it is only
a part. It is, in the minds of these credulous people, inti-
mately associated with a conviction of the infallibility of
the sikidy, or divination, by which the charm, according to
its particular kind or design, in any given case, must be
decided. And this again is as closely blended with a belief
in some superior power, whose will or fiat is ascertained by
the operation of the diviner's art — an art, by which, from
premises avowedly laid in chances, a process is worked out
by rule, and an indubitable certainty educed as the result.
Yet as firmly as the devout believers in the Koran adhere to
the paralyzing doctrine of fate, do the Malagasy tenaciously
maintain their "vintana" — a stern, unbending, fixed, im-
mutable destiny ; and after all they have pleaded for their

HISTORY OF MADAGASCAR. 389

charms, or sikidy, or god, every thing is summed up with
them in one comprehensive ultimatum—" Izany ny vin-
tany" — " Such was his destiny or fate."

Madagascar, it is true, exhibits no outward and visible ob-
jects of worship, calculated to charm the senses or claim the
veneration of the inhabitants of the country. It recognizes
no order of priesthood, and has no classic associations with
objects of long-established adoration. But it is not without
its idols, its ceremonies, its sacrifices, and its divinations.
It has its altars too, its vows, and its forbidden things — for-
bidden, because hateful to the imaginary genius of the
place. It has its mythology, crude as it is, and its guardians
of the gods, all impoverished as they are. It has its sup-
plications, deprecations, oaths, and forms of benediction.
It has also, as may justly be imagined, its full share of
puerile credulity in ghosts, spirits, and apparitions, and in
the legendary wonders and feats of giants and other mon-
sters of former days. It makes its appeal by ordeal to
some superior power, for preservation from the malevolent
though unenviable craft of the sorcerer ; and in order that
the land may be purged from the evils of witchcraft, it is
imbued with the innocent blood of the unfortunately
suspected victim — poisoned, speared, strangled, or dashed
over the fatal precipice. In a word, the Malagasy are
heathen, destitute of the volume of divine truth, and in
its absence carefully observing the faith, institutions, and
traditions of their ancestors. Vague, absurd, and unsatis-
factory as their creed may be, they cling to it with unyield-
ing tenacity. Dark and perplexed as are their minds on
the great principles of true religion, they are not without
thoughts and feelings on the subject. Their minds are not
a blank, upon which truth may at once be inscribed in legible
characters, but filled with vain imaginations, erroneous

390

HISTORY OF MADAGASCAR.

fancies, crude conceptions, superstitious fears, and a perti-
nacious adherence to the opinions and decisions of their

ancestors.

In investigating the religious faith and practice of the
Malagasy, a primary question is — do they believe in, or
have they any knowledge of, the one true God, the Maker
and Preserver of all things ? A cursory observation would,
probably, induce a favourable answer ; for they speak of
God, they pray to God, they appeal to God, and they bless
in the name of God. But if the inquiry be pursued — if it
be ascertained what ideas they attach to the term God,
their opinions, if indeed they merit that appellation, will be
found so vague, contradictory, and absurd, that the inquirer
will be disposed to conclude that the Malagasy have no
knowledge of Him who created the heavens and the earth,
and who clothes himself with honour and majesty.*

The terms in the native language for God are — Andria-
manitra and Zanahary, or Andria-nanahary. The first
and last are in most common use in the interior of the
island, and Zanahary on the coast. By Andria-manitra is
probably meant Prince of heaven, though by the analogy
of the language the word would then be Andrian-danitra.
Strictly the word seems to be compounded of Andriana,
" prince," and manitra, " sweet-scented" or perfumed, which
affords no consistent idea as applied to the Supreme Being.
Zanahary means he who causes to possess — the source of

* Radama, king of Madagascar, was a few years ago offered the knight-
hood of the order of St. Patrick, -which he declined, assigning as his reason
that he could not take the oath which required him to say that he helieved
in God, or that he feared God, meaning the God of the Europeans. The king
might have his concealed political reasons for this line of conduct, but his
objection being founded on the popular faith of his country, illustrates the
position that the real belief and opinion of the Malagasy concerning God
falls far below what the terms in their language seem at first sight to imply.

HISTORY OF MADAGASCAR.

391

possession and Andria-nanahary has the same significa-
tion, being the same word radically, with andriana, or
prince, affixed to it

If a Malagasy be asked the signification of these term^,
he replies that he cannot tell. Ask him if they all mean
the same thing, if they are different terms used to convey
the same idea, and he answers " Yes," or he will perhaps
say that Andria-manitra is the male god, and Zanahary the
female. Name to him his idols, and he avows that they
are andria-manitra, or, if rather more speculative than the
general mass of the people, he will perhaps say, they are
sampy, i.e. "helpers," or auxiliaries, all the idols being called
sampy, helpers, at the same time that the word may also
signify an object by which a solemn oath is taken, in which
sense the king may say aza misampy ahy, i. e. " do not
swear by me." If, however, a Malagasy be asked with
respect to these sampy, whom they do help, the reply is
vague and unsatisfactory. They help, andriamanitra —
they help the people in going to war, in obtaining blessings,
in recovering from diseases, &c. Then again, the genius
invoked by the Malagasy in their ordeal of tangena, under
the name of manamango, they also denominate and declare
to be andriamanitra. The king they also call andria-
manitra, and sometimes with the addition of hita maso —
" seen by the eye," i.e. the visible god. In short, whatever
is great, whatever exceeds the capacity of their under-
standings, they designate by the one convenient and com-
prehensive appellation, andriamanitra. Whatever is new
and useful and extraordinary, is called god. Silk is consi-
dered as god in the highest degree, the superlative adjective
being added to the noun — andriamanitra-indrindra. Rice,
money, thunder and lightning,* and earthquakes, are all

* It is related of Radama, that in a heavy thunder-storm, which occurred
one evening, he amused himself with firing some pieces of cannon. The

392

HISTORY OF MADAGASCAR.

called god. Their ancestors and a deceased sovereign they
designate in the same manner. Taratasy, or book, they
call god, from its wonderful capacity of speaking by merely
looking at it. Velvet is called by the singular epithet —
son of god.

Many of the people when asked what is God, will reply,
a star, the sun, the sky, money, or any thing to which
they attach notions of glory or mystery. Others have an
obscure notion of God being a spirit, or rather a multitude
of spirits, attending upon individual persons, and thus their
language very often is — every one has his god ; the blind
have a blind god, that makes them unable to see ; the rich
have a rich god, that enriches them ; and the prayer offered
to an idol consists generally of detached and brief sen-
tences, simply entreating the bestowment of riches, bul-
locks, rice, health, or other temporal possessions.

It becomes a subject of interesting but almost hopeless
inquiry, To whom do the Malagasy pray, and vow, and offer
sacrifice ? To Andria-manitra, to the Vazimba, and to their
ancestors. Who sends the rain ? Ramahavaly, one of the
principal idols. And who withholds it? We do not know;
perhaps god — perhaps the deceased king. But amidst all
this confusion, who do the Malagasy believe created them
and all things, and who sustains and governs all things ?
The reply is, Andria-manitra ; and to any question beyond
this, the honest reply not unfrequently is — We do not know,
we don't think about these things.

Still more vague and indefinite are the ideas they enter-
tain respecting the human soul and its future existence.

British agent went to him, and inquired his reasons for doing so. " Oh,"
said the king, " we are answering one another— both of us are gods. God
above is speaking by his thunder and lightning, and I am replying by my
powder and cannon." Mr. Hastie pointed out to him the presumption of
his conduct ; and the king ordered the firing to cease.

HISTORY OF MADAGASCAR.

393

They have no knowledge of the doctrine of the soul as a
separate, immaterial, immortal principle in man, nor has
their language any word to express such an idea. They
speak of the saina, but mean by this the intellectual
powers. They speak also of the fanahy, the nearest term
found to express spirit; but it seems, in their use of it, to
imply principally the moral qualities or dispositions. In
almost the same breath, a Malagasy will express his belief
that when he dies he ceases altogether to exist, dying like
the brute, and being conscious no more, and yet confess the
fact, that he is in the habit of praying to his ancestors ! If
asked, were his ancestors not human beings like himself,
and did they not cease altogether to exist when they died —
how then can it be consistent to pray to them when they
have no longer any being, he will answer, True, but there
is their matoatoa, their ghost ; and this is supposed to be
hovering about the tomb when the body is interred. And
there is also the ambiroa, or apparition, supposed to
announce death, to visit a person when about dying, and
to intimate to him, and sometimes to others, his approach-
ing dissolution, an idea by no means peculiar to Mada-
gascar, as it corresponds with the popular superstition of
most European countries, that the funeral, or apparition,
of a person still living, is permitted to be seen as a super-
natural intimation of his approaching death.

The next question is, What becomes of the saina, or
mind, when a person dies? To which the Malagasy
replies, It is a part of the body. But does it return to dust
with the body in the grave ? No ; the body returns to dust,
and the saina becomes levona, i. e. " vanished," invisible.
And the aina, or life, becomes rivotra — air, or wind, not
retaining its individuality, but absorbed and lost in mere
aura — a mere breeze — a breath in the general mass of air

394

HISTORY OF MADAGASCAR.

floating around. And what becomes of the fanahy? It
remains — it exists but only in the associations of memory —
a mere idea or recollection, therefore a metaphysical entity.
Hence the word comes to signify character ; and so far as
a man's character and dispositions may be held in the
remembrance of survivors, his " fanahy" is said to remain .
But this is obviously a very loose application of the term.

It has been said that the Malagasy believe in the exist-
ence of four superior divinities or lords, governing respect-
ively the four quarters of the earth. An idea of this kind
certainly prevails on some parts of the coast, but in the
interior it is regarded as fabulous.

Such being the opinions of the Malagasy concerning
God and the human soul, it is obvious that the doctrine of
a future state of retribution is unknown amongst them.
No conceptions are entertained on the subject of the rela-
tions subsisting between the Creator and his creatures ; and
hence no impressions exist respecting moral responsibility
and its specific moral obligations. The exercise of the
domestic, social, and civil virtues depend upon the frail
basis of the customs of antiquity, and the established
usages of the country. These at least serve as their
guide and standard while they are enforced by the sanc-
tion of the law, and the enactments of the sovereign.
Hence it may easily be inferred how egregiously erro-
neous will be the comparative scale of virtues and vices
as drawn by a Malagasy. Chicanery, lying, cheating, and
defrauding, are mere trifles compared with the enormous
offences of trampling or dancing upon a grave, eating
pork in certain districts where it is prohibited, running
after an owl or a wild cat, or preparing enchantments.

The weekly computation of time, the ceremony of cir-
cumcision, various purifications, and the offering of sacri-

HISTORY OF MADAGASCAR.

395

fices, are almost the only circumstances found among the
Malagasy corresponding with those of the Mosaic insti-
tutes. No traditional knowledge appears to exist amongst
them of any of the great events unfolded to the world by
the inspired records, such as the creation, the fall of man,
the deluge, the selection of one favoured people, the per-
formance of miracles, or the promise of a Deliverer for the
human race. It may be almost superfluous to add, that no
ideas, however confused or remote, are found to exist
relating to the doctrine of a Mediator, the advent of the
Redeemer, the salvation of man, the renewal of the heart,
the resurrection of the dead, the judgment to come, or the
glory to be revealed.

After this general statement, it may now be appropriate
to introduce a more specific account of the objects and
modes of worship prevailing in Madagascar.

There are, in the immediate neighbourhood of Tanau-
arivo, twelve or fifteen principal idols, inspiring the reli-
gious dread and veneration of the people. These idols
belong respectively to different tribes or divisions of the
natives, and are supposed to be the guardians and bene-
factors, or the titular gods, of these particular clans or
tribes. Four of these are considered superior to all others,
dispensing benefits more widely and effectually, guard-
ing the interests of the sovereign, and the kingdom at
large. In other words, these four principal idols are con-
sidered public and national. There are, throughout the
country, many others belonging to the several clans and
districts, and by them considered of greater or less import-
ance. Such, however, are little known beyond their own
immediate vicinity. The idols of Imerina, for example,
possess no weight nor authority amongst the Sakalavas,
nor those of the Sakalavas in Imerina. Every province and

396 HISTORY OF MADAGASCAR.

every clan has its idol. Every house also, and family, its
own object of veneration and confidence, which, in a limited
sense, may be regarded as an idol, but is more properly
called ody, or " charm," and which seems to correspond
with the teraphim of the Old Testament, and the penates
of the ancients. Not only does each household contain
its ody, but to a great extent each individual has his own ;
and sometimes one individual has many, and wears them
about his person. Crocodile's teeth are worn by many as
receptacles of their ody, in which they put their trust, in
sickness and health, in life and death.

In passing through Madagascar, the traveller may ob-
serve a few villages scattered here and there, which are
esteemed by the people, Masina, or sacred : admission to
these is prohibited to some tribes of the natives, as well
as to many animals and articles of food and merchandise.
On inquiring the reason of this distinction, it is discovered
that in these villages an idol is kept in some ordinary
house without any priesthood or worshippers. The man
in whose house the idol is kept, issues its pretended orders,
and answers all applications made to it. This man is
often assisted by others, and in some instances the whole
of the villagers, or clan of a district, are considered as pro-
tectors or adherents of the idol. The owner of the idol-
house is called mpitahiry, or " keeper," and mpitondra, or
" carrier f* the former in relation to his preserving the idol
in his house, and the latter to his carrying it forth at
public processions. If the clan or villagers accompany
the idol in procession, they are called momba, or adherents.

The origin of the national idols, so far as it can be
traced, will be specified under their respective names.
The whole system appears to have sprung up in compa-
ratively modern times, and long subsequently to the preva-

HISTORY OF MADAGASCAR. 397

lence of the worship of household gods. According to the
statement of the Rev. D. Jones, there are old men in
Imerina who testify that the most ancient traditions of
their country are those proverbial sayings, which in some
measure recognise the existence and attributes of the one
true God. This supreme Being, according to such tra-
ditions, sleeps not, sees all things, avenges wickedness,
rewards goodness, governs all, and effects what man en-
deavours. From this knowledge the worship of household
gods is said to have been derived; but while the origin of
such wrorship appears to be unknown, tradition relates that
national idolatry was introduced in the following manner : —
A king of ancient times observing the influence obtained
by masters of families, in consequence of their acting as
their own priests, and consecrating their own household
gods, adopted the plan of consecrating an idol for the
people, calling them his family and children.

Whatever uncertainty there may be in this tradition,
it is true that Impoina, the father of Radama, did repeat-
edly convene the population to witness the consecrating
or setting apart of several of the present national idols.
Impoina is said to have acted thus solely from political
motives, having their foundation in the conviction that
some kind of religious or superstitious influence was use-
ful in the government of a nation. It is still acknowledged
as a principle, that the idols are under the sovereign's
special support. To the sovereign the keepers apply for
new velvet in which to fold the idol, for bullocks to sacri-
fice to it, and for whatever is needed for its protection and
state.

It does not appear that the kings who raised the national
idols to their present elevation, instituted any mode of pub-
lic worship ; or if they did, the attempt must have failed,

398

HISTORY OF MADAGASCAR.

for no public worship is offered to them now. Yet they
are called god, and in many respects a regard, amounting
to idolatry, is paid to them. The following translation from
an account of the idols written by a native in the Malagasy
language, will illustrate this fact.

" The idols are called god, prayed to, praised, thanked,
highly regarded, honoured, and lifted up : they are said
to be that which causes to live and causes to die, and are
supposed to see the future, the past, and the present,
and to be able to cast down the thunderbolts, pour down
the hail, to remove disease and inflict curses, and to as-
semble the snake tribe* against all who calumniate them.
It is said also that their calumniators are strangled by
them. They are called means of life, and are kept in
boxes."

Much superstition is practised by the people towards the
idols. If sick, they apply to them for a cure. From them
they obtain charms, and to them they look for prognostics
of future events, as well as for deliverance from present evil.
To them they often pray for earthly good, and their thanks
are offered to them for the enjoyments of life. Public
assemblies are sometimes convened, when it is pretended
that the people are blessed by the idols, or the rice-ground
is hallowed, by sprinkling, to preserve the rice from
locusts or blight. At such assemblies, also, the people
are sometimes enjoined to abstain from certain actions
or kinds of food, in order to propitiate the favour of
the idol, and thus obtain protection against certain appre-
hended evils.

* The snakes or serpents which abound in Madagascar are supposed to
be the special agents of the idols, and as such are regarded with superstitious
fear by the people,

HISTORY OF MADAGASCAR.

399

It is difficult to answer the inquiry of what shape and
appearance are the national idols of the Malagasy ; because,
so far from their being publicly exhibited, it is considered
impious to endeavour to obtain a sight of them. The
only one of which we have any correct information, was
that seen by Mr. Jeffries at Ambohimanga; it was a
piece of wood cut into a rough imitation of the human
figure. Probably, as the national appear to be derived
from the household gods, they may, like them, assume
an endless variety of forms. The general opinion of the
natives is, that most of them are of the human shape, and
vary from half a foot to a foot in length. They cannot be
much more, as the cases in which they are kept are
generally not more than a foot long. Some are supposed to
be mere blocks of no definite shape, and others imitations
of animals. Rafanonela is said to be an insect, or to be
manufactured in the shape of one, and to be about the size
of the silkworm.

But as no strangers are permitted to approach the
houses in which these idols are kept, little opportunity is
afforded for seeing of what materials they are composed,
or what may be their appearance and figure. When
carried in public, the idol is usually borne by one person,
and seems to be a small image wrapped in a red cloth,
and affixed to a pole for the convenience of the bearer, and
for the purpose of making a greater impression upon the
awe-stricken populace. The people, however, are strictly
forbidden to gaze. Curiosity would be an offence. The
leader carries a spear at the head of the company, and
directs the people to retire out of the public road while
the idol is carried by. The cloth of red velvet which
covers the idol, is presented by the sovereign, a new one
being given occasionally as the old one becomes too shabby

400

PIISTORY OF MADAGASCAR.

for the honour of the divinity. The sovereign also makes
an occasional present of bullocks to the keepers, or of
money, to enable them to purchase cattle. The pecuniary
advantages received by the keeper, however, are not great.
His reward is the honour of his office.

When the idol-keeper purposes to sanctify the idol in
order to offer prayer to it, or prepare it for the prayers
of worshippers, he closes the doors, observes strictly that
no one is watching, and then, opening the case, takes out
the idol, and pours castor oil upon it, after which he
restores it to its proper place.

So difficult is the distinction between real and interested
zeal, that it is impossible to ascertain whether these men
are themselves the dupes of superstition, or merely the
deceivers of others. They are extremely violent in their
defence of the idols, and universally profess their own
belief in them. The emoluments falling to the share of
the idol-keepers are unfixed and fluctuating. In many
cases, a dollar is given for advice, promises, or charms.
A sheep is often presented, and smaller sums of money,
or presents of smaller value, are gladly accepted by the
idol-keepers, who are not often affluent, and are sometimes
in circumstances of extreme poverty.

In reference to the dii penates, or household gods of
Madagascar, there is no known traditional account of
their origin or history. Most of these idols are lite-
rally blocks, without pretension to a human shape : in fact,
anything which accident points out, or fancy dictates, or
the idol-keepers or diviners fix upon, will make an idol
if the owner set it apart or consecrate it as such.

On one occasion, a man was seen with a rough imitation
of a bullock wrought in silver, about the size of a walnut,
hanging suspended from his wrist. On being asked what

HISTORY OF MADAGASCAR.

401

it was, he replied, Omby lahy vola, " a bullock of money."
And on further inquiry, it appeared that he worshipped
it as his god of money. On another occasion, two of the
Missionaries were struck with the appearance of a very-
curious bushy plant, hung up in an old chieftain's house ;
and while examining it, they were told it was the chief-
tain's idol, which he worshipped daily.

The office of mpitahiry, or guardian of the national
idols, is hereditary, and considered highly honourable.
The temple in which they are kept is no more than one
of the ordinary houses of the natives, in which the guar-
dian of the idol usually resides. A kiady, or pole with a
small knot of straw tied to the top of it, is generally
placed near the door, to give notice that entrance is
forbidden.

There is not usually any altar connected with the
residence of the idol, and hence its temple is not con-
sidered in the light of a place destined for worship. In-
stead of the people going to the idol, the idol is brought
to the people. Sacrifices are sometimes offered in the
village where an idol is kept, and the sacred stone is used
for this purpose. But generally the people offer their
sacrifices at the vato vazimba, which are stones considered
to be sacred, and erected where the tomb of a vazimba
is supposed to have existed. The sacrifices are also
offered to the dead, and to the vazimba, more generally
than to the idols themselves.

The idols are appealed to in solemn oaths of allegiance,
and in the administration of the tangena, or trial by ordeal.
They are also at occasional, not fixed, periods carried
about publicly to disperse diseases, to fortify the people
against the danger of storms and lightnings, and to bestow
virtue on springs and fountains. They are also carried to

402 HISTORY OF MADAGASCAR.

the wars, to inspire their devotees with courage, and to
render them invulnerable and victorious.

The names of the principal idols are as follow :

Of these fifteen, the two most important are the first
named : Rakelimalaza and Ramahavaly. These are regarded
as having in some way entrusted to them the charge of the
welfare, dignity, and interests of the kingdom at large.

The residence of Rakelimalaza is about seven miles to
the east of Tananarivo, at a village called Ambohimanam-
bola, or, the village of money. This village is divided into
two parts, north and south, and situated on the summit of
a hill, which, according to the custom of the country in
such cases, frequently assumes the name of the village.
The whole of this hill is considered sacred ground. The
name of the idol signifies, "renowned, although dimi-
nutive."

Within the limits of the ground which is considered
sacred, and which embraces a wide circumference in the
immediate vicinity of the idol's residence, it is strictly
forbidden to bring, or suffer to come, certain animals and
certain objects, which are carefully specified by the keepers
of the idol. Things thus forbidden are called Fady; a

* The prefix, I, is sometimes used to the names, instead of Ra — Ikelima-
laza, Imahavaly, &c.

1 Rakelimalaza*

2 Ramahavaly.

3 Ramanjakatsirda.

4 Rafantaka.

5 Ramanjaibola.

6 Rafaroratra.

7 Ratsimahavaly.

8 Rabehaza.

9 Ravalolona.

10 Rafohitanana.

1 1 Razanaharitsimandry.

12 Ralehifotsy.

13 Ralehimalemalema.

14 Ratsisimba.'

15 Ralandremo.

HISTORY OF MADAGASCAR.

403

term of similar import with the well-known Tabu of the
South Sea Islands. Every idol has its own particular
Fady. The things prohibited by Rakelimalaza are, guns,
gunpowder, pigs, onions, sifotra (a shell-fish resembling a
snail), sitry (a small animal resembling the young croco-
dile), striped or spotted robes, anything of a black colour,
goats, horses, meat distributed at funerals or at the tan-
gena, and cats and owls. Its keepers are forbidden to enter
any house where there is a corpse ; and in crossing a river
they are not permitted to say, " Carry me," otherwise they
place themselves in danger of being seized by the croco-
diles ; and in war they must not talk, or they are in danger
of being shot.

As every idol has its own list of prohibited articles, so
each idol has its own specific sphere of operation in pro-
moting the welfare of its individual worshippers, or of the
nation at large. The benefits conferred by Rakelimalaza
are, rendering the sovereign invincible, and universally
victorious ; preventing the crocodiles from seizing a person
when crossing a river; protecting against the mamosavy,
sorcerers ; and extinguishing fires, by means of his worship-
pers merely putting their cloth over their heads.

Although not strictly connected with a description of
this idol, it may not be out of place to record here an inci-
dent which happened some time ago to one of its keepers.
A school had been established at the village by the Mission-
aries, and amongst the scholars was the son of the idol's
guardian. The youth having learned that he alone was the
true God who had created the heavens and the earth,
plainly told his father that that was not God which was
taken care of by others, but he who took care of all. The
father was very angry, and asked his son if he did not know
that Rakelimalaza was god ? The boy declined urging the

2d 2

404

HISTORY OF MADAGASCAR.

point until another opportunity offered. Meantime be
found in his catechism the text, " Hear, O Israel ! the Lord
our God is one Lord ;" when he exclaimed, " Now I am
both delighted and grieved : delighted to have found the
word of the true God — grieved on account of my relatives.
They are lovers of idols." He then begged his father's
permission to quit the school : " For why," said he, " should
I continue to learn what you do not believe." " What do
I not believe?'' asked the father. "That," replied the
youth, " of which I have told you before ; and which will
not only do me good, but you also. There are new heavens
and a new earth for those who believe in God, with ever-
lasting life, and garments shining like the sun, that never
wax old."

An impression was made upon the father's mind. He
paused — encouraged the youth — and shortly afterwards
resolved on relinquishing his charge of the idol. Pretending
business at some distance, he therefore asked leave of
absence, and remained beyond the stipulated time; for
which a fine was imposed upon him, and another person
chosen to supersede him in his office. Having obtained
information of this, he returned home, paid his fine, and
felt himself relieved in being free from his charge of keep-
ing a god which he had learned could neither keep others
nor himself.

Next in rank to Rakelimalaza is Ramahavaly ; a name
which signifies, " capable of replying."* A house is allot-
ted for his occasional residence at the capital ; but his home
is Ambohitany, a village about two miles distant from

* This name formed the subject of some addresses to the schools, point-
ing out the correctness of such an appellation in reference to the true God,
and to no other — to Him who is able to answer if worshipped, if obeyed,
if consulted, if despised — who is, in the fullest sense of the words, " able
to answer.*'

HISTORY OF MADAGASCAR. 405

Ambohimanga. The village itself does not consist of
above a hundred houses, built upon a steep hill, and inter-
sected by deep and numerous moats. The idol is kept in
a house at the western extremity of the village, which is
separated from the other part by a steep hady or fosse.
No stranger is suffered to approach this house, lest the
virtue of the charms and the powers of the idol should be
injured.

With regard to the origin of this idol, it is said, that
about ninety or a hundred years ago a person professed to
have an excellent charm, by which he could prevent and
cure diseases. The chieftain of the district having obtained
information of this wonderful charm, sent a person who
was ill, in order that its efficacy might be put to the test.
According to report, it proved efficacious, and the man
recovered. The charm became renowned throughout the
district, and in process of time rose to the reputation and
dignity of a god, and was designated Mahavaly — " able to
answer."

The Fady in prohibited articles of Ramahavaly, like
those of Rakelimalaza, are, the meat of animals killed at
funerals and at ordeals ; or when the guardian enters the
residence of the idol, sitting with his feet towards the
north-east corner of the house. He also most strictly
forbids the killing of serpents.

It would scarcely be expected that a chief and a judge,
devoted to idol- worship, would be the strenuous advocate for
a school at the idol's village. Such, however, was the fact,
in 1824, from whatever motive it originated. Mr. Griffiths
was visiting some schools in the neighbourhood, and while
passing the foot of the hill was met by the Farantsa of
Ambohitany, sent to him by Andriamahary, to urge him to
come up and converse with him upon the subject of esta-

406 HISTORY OF MADAGASCAR.

blishing a school. It being impracticable to remain there
at the time, the people ran up the hill to fetch the chieftain
part of the way down to meet Mr. Griffiths. In the mean
time there came about forty children, already collected
towards forming a school, a few of whom had been scholars
at Ambohimanga, and repeated what little they had learned.
4 Then," said the people, " our children can learn as well
those of other villages. Let us have teachers. We are
next in rank and in importance to Ambohimanga, and our
village is ancient and renowned." In a short time the old
judge made his appearance. " Come," said he, " and stay
at my house for the night. The sun has set, and it is
fifteen miles from Tananarive You cannot reach the
capital in safety — the pamosavy* will seize you." " We
have no fear of the pamosavy," was the reply. " Oh, well,"
continued the chieftain, " perhaps you white people have
some effectual charm to keep them from injuring you."
" No," was the reply again ; " we have no charm of the kind,
but put our trust in the living God." " Then," said the old
judge, " if he will not remain with us to-night, go fetch him
a present of food; for no man can live without eating.
But," he continued, " we must have a school ; and it is of
no use to hesitate about giving us teachers. We are next
to Ambohimanga in every enterprise." He was then asked,
ct How many children he would promise there should be ?" To
which he answered, " Fifty." "No," said Mr. Griffiths, " give
us a hundred." " Very well," replied the old man, £i give
us teachers, and there shall be a hundred provided." A
school was accordingly established.

The principal benefit conferred by the idol called Rama-
havaly, is, to preserve from, or expel, epidemic diseases.
He is regarded as the physician of Imerina; and is
* Bewitched.

HISTORY OF MADAGASCAR. 407

sometimes carried to the towns arid villages, to avert the
evil when general sickness is apprehended. A striking
instance of faith in this idol occurred in 1826, at Tana-
narive. A very extensive, and, in many instances, fatal
malady prevailed, both in the capital and in the neighbour-
ing villages. Application was therefore made to Ramaha-
valy, and he was brought to Tananarivo, where crowds of
people collected from all parts of the adjoining country.
The guardians of the idol having taken their station, the
people, with their shoulders uncovered, advanced in succes-
sive bodies of about 300 each, while one of the guardians,
acting the part of priest, took a horn filled with honied
water, and sprinkled the people as they passed in lines be-
fore him. All were grave and serious during the ceremony,
after which they retired without noise or talking ; a mode
of leaving their assemblies widely different from that
observed on all other occasions.

During the act of sprinkling the idol, the guardian assured
the people of safety from the impending calamity in the
following words : — " Take courage — you, your wives, and
your children. You have Ramahavaly — take courage for
yourselves and your property. He is the preserver of life ;
and, should diseases invade, he will suddenly arrest them,
and prevent them coming near to injure you."

This ceremony is called Miafana; which signifies, "to
avert;" and the water sprinkled on the occasion is called
Ranonafana — " water of averting." A ceremony of this kind
takes place almost every year at the capital.

Great is the renown of the idol Ramahavaly. He is
sometimes described as god, sacred, powerful, and almighty ;
who kills, and makes alive ; who heals the sick, and pre-
vents diseases and pestilence ; who can cause thunder and
lightning to strike their victims, or prevent their fatality ;

408

HISTORY OF MADAGASCAR.

can cause rain in abundance when wanted, or can withhold
it so as to ruin the crops of rice. He is also celebrated for
his knowledge of the past and the future, and for his capa-
city of discovering whatever is hidden or concealed. Should
charms be secreted in some clandestine manner, or from
any malignant motive be buried in the ground, with a
view of injuring people or rendering them bewitched, he is
able to find the mysterious spells — to point out the exact
spot of ground where they have been concealed — and thus
avert the intended mischief.

Some qualities of locomotion are also attributed to
Ramahavaly. If disposed to visit any part of the country,
he can do it without any one conveying him thither ; or, while
being carried, he can stop of his own accord, and make his
bearer tremble beneath him. In passing ants' holes, it is
said by his carriers that he has the remarkable habit of
making a pause, quite of his own accord.

The intelligent monarch Radama was fully convinced
of the absurdity and falsehood of the pretensions of the
idol-keepers; and though he was too shrewd an observer
of human nature violently to assail the superstitious
prejudices that existed in their favour, he often made them
appear exceedingly ridiculous in the eyes of the people,
whenever they attempted any of their jugglery in his pre-
sence. On one occasion, the keeper of the great national
idol suddenly rushed into the court-yard, where the king and
many of his chiefs and officers were assembled. He carried
a pole, with something wrapped in red velvet, the ordinary
symbol of the idol, at the end of it. On entering the
palace-yard, he ran about like one frantic ; and on being
asked by the king why he did so, he said that the idol
made him act in a manner which he himself could not avoid.
" It is surprising," said the king, "that the god should affect

HISTORY OF MADAGASCAR. 409

you so powerfully ; let me try if it will be the same with me.''
Upon which the king took the pole and walked gravely
round the court without the slightest appearance of any
extraordinary emotion. He then turned round to one of
the chiefs, and said, " Perhaps I am too heavy for the god
to move ; do you try, you are light enough." Accordingly,
the chief took the pole in his hands, and walked about, but
without experiencing any ecstasy ; and then returned it to
the poor keeper, who slunk off, not a little mortified at the
result of the king's experiment. On some of the chiefs who
were present, the effect was alike salutary and durable.

The people are taught to believe that should any presume
to question the power of Ramahavaly, or dare to sport with
his claims, his anger is roused, and he prepares to vindicate
himself, by inflicting terrible vengeance upon the presump-
tuous offender. As an indication of his displeasure, a
serpent, it is said, instinctively coils itself around the neck
of his guardian, and others around the arms of his attend-
ants. Immense numbers of serpents will also publicly
demonstrate the guilt of the offender, by as instinctively
seizing upon his person, and strangling him, for having
ventured to abuse or insult Rabiby — another epithet for the
idol, literally signifying, " beast," or " animal," — by way of
eminence ; " the god of beasts." He is said, besides, to
possess the power of vindicating his own insulted majesty, by
inflicting upon such as contumeliously reject his authority,
the very singular punishment, not exactly of twisting their
neck, but of giving it that awkward kind of turn that would
place the person's face behind, and the back of his head in
front ; a reverse produced by a spell too potent for any
power on earth to undo.

The name of the idol kept at the capital is Ramanjaka-
tsi-roa ; signifying, " there are not two sovereigns," or, " the

410

HISTORY OF MADAGASCAR.

king is supreme :" a motto not unworthy of the genius of
a despotic government. This idol is kept in the court-yard
of the palace ; and although strictly the metropolitan idol,
he holds no higher than the third rank in point of importance
and honour, and, in popular estimation, yields precedence
both to Rakelimalaza and Ramahavaly. When the sovereign
goes out to a campaign in his own proper person, this idol
of the capital is carried with him. At all other times he
remains quietly within his own residence, as if to recruit
his vigour after the fatigues of a military expedition. His
prohibitions are similar to those of other idols, with the
addition that no corpse may be conveyed within the pre-
cincts of his residence. The specific good which he is
supposed to effect, is, the extension of the territories of the
sovereign ; in fact, the securing of exclusive dominion for
the one monarch — the very idea included in his anti-demo-
cratical appellation.

There is one other idol, of considerable fame, of which
a separate notice may be taken before closing the account
of these divinities, namely, Ranakandriana. His residence
is reputed to be at Andringitra, a high mountain north-
west of Tananarivo, and about thirty miles distant. To
him is ascribed the honour of having imparted the know-
ledge of divination to the Malagasy. He is said, also, to
give an audible reply to any who may salute him. There
is an echo reverberating from that part of the rock where
his altars are erected ; and this may easily have given rise
to the idea of a response from the mysterious divinity.
The altars are similar to those erected to the vazimba;
amply saturated with the fat and blood of victims, and sur-
rounded with the horns of bullocks and the heads of sheep
and fowls, some of which are affixed to short stakes and
poles placed upright in the ground. The divinity is said

HISTORY OF MADAGASCAR.

411

to reside in a cave not far from the top of the mountain.
The principal altar is on the summit ; and, of course, higher
than the residence of Ranakandriana himself.

The inhabitants of a neighbouring village, on being
recently questioned as to whether they had really ever
heard any salutations responded to, honestly answered they
had not ; but warily added, they had been informed that
their ancestors had been favoured with responses from the
god. They were asked, again, " If what their ancestors
had told was true, how was it that no replies were given
now when they saluted Ranakandriana ?" " Because his
awaker is dead/' was the reply. "Does he then sleep,
since some one is required to awaken him V " We do not
know of ourselves, but so we have been informed." " But
is there no one to replace his awaker ?" " No ; we know
of no one else who is able to awaken him."*

His majesty Radama, aware of the reputed fame of this
idol for answering those who saluted him, resolved, some
years since, to visit his altar, in order to ascertain the truth
of the reports. On arriving at the spot, he entered the
dark cavern, the supposed residence of Ranakandriana, and
saluted the invisible divinity. A low and solemn voice
answered, "Tsara hiany.', He then offered to present a
hasina, or small donation of money ; and on a hand being
gently moved forward to accept the offering of the monarch,
the king instantly seized it, and exclaimed, " This is no
god — this is a human being !" He immediately gave orders
to his people to drag out the impostor ; and thus the spell
was broken in the minds of many, and the disbelief of the
king in the superstitions of his country confirmed. No

* " Cry aloud, for he is a God : peradventure he sleepeth and mu»t
be awaked." 1 Kings xviii. 27.

412 HISTORY OF MADAGASCAR.

imposition of responding to salutations has since been
practised, nor has any one assumed the office of awaker.

The names of many of the idols are singularly significant
of the powers and the attributes supposed to belong to
them. Among the idols of inferior note, the following
may be mentioned : —

Keli-manjaka-lanitra, " Little, but ruling the heavens." —
As this god, according to his name, pretends to " rule the
heavens," so his exploits are said to be of the following de-
scription : — That when the rice is ripe in the fields, and the
hail approaching, then he casts (i.e. causes to be cast) a charm
to the bottom of the water; and fetching ashes from the
four corners of the hearth, he throws it towards the clouds,
when the hail changes into rain, and the rice is secured.
He has many appropriate abstinencies to be enjoined upon
his followers, the non-observance of which will frustrate his
charms against the hail. Amongst them are — not grind-
ing rice near the place where luggage is deposited ; not
boiling the root voanjo at the fire-place ; and such like
observances ; "/or such things are his antipathies."

Manara-mody, "The Restorer to one's home." — The
pretended power of this idol is founded on the love the
natives have to their native country and village, their
families and parents. He professes to furnish a charm, from
the application of which, by a third person, the devotee will
be sure of reaching that third person again, to whatever
dangers he may be exposed. The popularity of this idol is
not to be wondered at, when it is considered with how many
tears mothers, and fathers, and wives, and kindred, and
friends, dismiss the objects of their strongest affections to
the distant war, with the probabilities greatly against their
ever returning; and with how bitter a grief the soldiers
themselves bid farewell to their loved Imerina, and all its

HISTORY OF MADAGASCAR.

413

domestic joys. Any delusion is eagerly seized which pro-
mises a restoration to this loved spot.

Manara-mody is, moreover, like many other of the idols,
supposed to possess very singular powers. He is supposed
to be able to convert a piece of cloth into a snake ; and that
into a growing plant ; and that, again, into other dissimilar
things. These metamorphoses are performed by the idol-
keeper, whilst the idol is placed above, wrapped in cloth,
as if presiding over and performing the wonders.

Rakapila. — Perhaps the name of this idol signifies, " half
dishevelled," from his dress or head ornaments. He pro-
fesses to foresee any blight likely to affect the rice, or any
disease impending over the people; and, by appropriate
charms, to avert them. For example : — If overwhelming
rain and lightning are approaching, he proclaims, " Kill a
sheep having red hair, and scatter his bones in the town."

Rakapila is a great seller of charms, as a native tradition
declares — " If people desire charms, whatever be the
charm, and against whatever evil, they can fetch from
Rakapila, for he possesses all ; whether a charm against the
gun, the spear, or the cannon, he will supply; whether a
charm against the fever, the measles, the leprosy, a cold, the
dropsy, ulcers, tumours, boils, abscesses, the yaws, &c, he
will supply them all. And whether charms against the
crocodiles, the locusts, the scorpions, other venomous in-
sects, &c, he will supply. Or if the people seek charms
for obtaining their desires, he will supply, whether it be a
charm for getting riches, for rendering successful in busi-
ness, &c, then will Rakapila supply them, for he possesses
them, and thence it is that people exalt him."

Randrano-vola, " the silver wrater," and Randrano-mena,
"the red water." — These are kept in a village called
Andraisisa, and are famous for several ridiculous absti-

414

HISTORY OF MADAGASCAR.

nences enjoined on the villagers, but of which decency
forbids the detail. They also bless the bullocks killed at
the annual feast, which are led by the head people to the
idols. They have their fady, or antipathies, like other
idols.

Ramanandroany, " the governor of the past part of the
day." — It is pretended of this idol, that whoever tramples
upon (i.e. insults) him, becomes blind, and his knees become
swollen. But his principal boast is, to inflict punishment
on an unknown thief. An application is made to him after
the following manner : —

The owner of the thing stolen takes a remnant of it
to the idol, and says, " As to whoever stole our property,
O Ramanandroany, kill him by day, destroy him by night,
and strangle him ; let there be none amongst men like
him ; let him not be able to increase in riches, not even a
farthing, but let him pick up his livelihood as a hen pecks
rice-grains ; let his eyes be blinded, and his knees swollen,
O Mananandroany." It is supposed these curses fall on the
thief. Slaves, also, are taken by their masters to this idol,
and a curse is pronounced upon them if they should waste
their master's property, or run away, &c.

Rafotribe. — The name of this idol is the common appel-
lation of respect given to elderly people. He is said to

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